A presente tese tem como objetivo principal a investigação do processo de intercalação e esfoliação do hexaniobato lamelar em soluções de hidróxidos de tetraalquilamônios e, também, do emprego das partículas do niobato na preparação de materiais híbridos com polissacarídeos. O material de composição H2K2Nb6O17 foi suspenso em soluções aquosas contendo diferentes concentrações dos hidróxidos de tetrametilamônio (TMA+), tetraetilamônio (TEA+) e tetrapropilamônio (TPA+). Após o tempo de reação foram separadas duas frações: o sólido depositado no recipiente e o sobrenadante turvo contendo as partículas não depositadas de características coloidais. Os resultados de difratometria de raios X, análise termogravimétrica, análise elementar, espectroscopia vibracional no infravermelho e Raman mostram que o processo de intercalação é promovido segundo a ordem: TMA+ > TEA+ > TPA+, isto é, a intercalação é facilitada para íons pouco volumosos. Já o processo de esfoliação do hexaniobato é promovido na ordem inversa: TPA+ » TEA+ > TMA+, ou seja, quanto mais volumoso o íon tetraalquilamônio, maior a extensão do processo de separação das lamelas. A formação das partículas cilíndricas, presentes em maior quantidade nas amostras tratadas com soluções de TPA+ e TBA+, é favorecida pelo aumento do tamanho da cadeia carbônica e da concentração das soluções do hidróxido. Além dos processos de intercalação ou esfoliação, observou-se o processo de formação de gel na etapa de remoção de eletrólitos na lavagem dos sólidos depositados. O entumescimento das lamelas empilhadas de hexaniobato é favorecido para amostras intercaladas com íons TEA+; possivelmente esses íons possuem a melhor relação entre hidrofilicidade e tamanho, promovendo a formação de gel. O composto contendo íons TEA+ intercalados no hexaniobato ácido foi empregado na preparação de material híbrido contendo o polissacarídeo quitosana intercalado na matriz inorgânica, com o objetivo de modificar a superfície do hexaniobato para promover a compatibilização com o amido e a formação de nanocompósitos. Filmes de amido desestruturado contendo partículas de hexaniobato foram preparados por casting. Para alcançar alto grau de dispersão da partícula inorgânica no polímero, três tipos de partículas de hexaniobato foram empregadas: (i) partículas esfoliadas com n-butilamina, (ii) partículas altamente hidratadas de TEA+-hexaniobato e (iii) partículas modificadas pela intercalação com quitosana. As técnicas de difratometria de raios X, análise termogravimétrica acoplada à espectrometria de massa, espectroscopia vibracional no infravermelho e microscopia eletrônica de varredura sugerem que nos filmes transparentes e flexíveis obtidos, a matriz lamelar se encontra preferencialmente na forma intercalada. Os resultados preliminares de análise dinâmico-mecânica sugerem a seguinte tendência no comportamento mecânico dos filmes: a adição do hexaniobato torna os filmes de amido mecanicamente mais resistentes e as amostras sem o plastificante glicerol apresentam maior resistência e menor deformação que aquelas com glicerol. / The main aim of this Thesis is the investigation of intercalation and exfoliation processes occurring when the layered material H2K2Nb6O17 is suspended in alkaline solutions containing tetramethylammonium (TMA+), tetraethylammonium (TEA+) or tetrapropylammonium (TPA+) cations, as well as the employment of the hexaniobate particles in the preparation of hybrid materials with polysaccharides. After the reaction using different concentrations of the tetraalkylammonium hydroxide solutions, two fractions were separated: the deposited solid (i.e. the sediment at bottom of the flasks) and the opaque supernatant containing particles with colloidal characteristics. Experimental data from X-ray diffractometry (XRD), mass spectrometry coupled thermogravimetric analyses (TG-MS), elemental analysis, vibrational infrared (IR) and Raman spectroscopies show that intercalation reaction is promoted in the order TMA+ > TEA+ > TPA+ while exfoliation process is facilitated in the inverse order: TPA+ » TEA+ > TMA+. Development of particles with stick-like shapes is observed when H2K2Nb6O17 is kept mainly in the solutions containing the larger TPA+ and TBA+ ions. Samples containing intercalated TEA+ ions form a gel-like system when washed to remove the non-intercalated ions dissolved in water. Experimental data suggest that the gel phase constituted by long-range swelled particles. This fact was interpreted as a consequence of the intermediate characteristics (surface polarity and ion radius) of the TEA+ ions compared to the others ions investigated in this study. The hexaniobate material intercalated with TEA+ ions was used to prepare a hybrid material having the chitosan polymer intercalated into the inorganic matrix in order to compatibilize the hexaniobate particles with starch and a nanocomposite formation. The study of the films of starch-niobate showed that the matrix is in the intercalation form preferentially, even using different exfoliation agents and modification species (n-butylamine, TEAOH and chitosan). Films of destructured starch having hexaniobate particles were prepared by casting method. In order to reach a high level of inorganic particles dispersed in the polymer, three kinds of hexaniobate particles were used: (i) particles exfoliated with n-butylamine, (ii) hydrated particles of TEA+-hexaniobate and (iii) hexaniobate particles intercalated with chitosan. XRD, TG-MS, IR, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) techniques suggest that hexaniobate particles are mainly in the intercalated form in the transparent and flexible obtained starch films. Preliminary dynamic mechanical analysis data indicate the following general tendency in the mechanic characteristics of the films: niobate particles make the starch films more resistant and the samples without the glycerol plasticizer present higher resistance and lower deformation than the films with glycerol.

Polihidroxialcanoatos são polímeros biodegradáveis, sintetizados por bactérias a partir de fontes de carbono renováveis. Este trabalho se concentra na produção de P3HB a partir de xilose no contexto de uma usina padrão de álcool e açúcar que produz energia através de cogeração, utiliza resíduos agrícolas de cana-de-açúcar e passaria a produzir etanol de segunda geração a partir do bagaço. A produção de PHAs a partir de xilose, hoje descartada, poderá viabilizar a geração de etanol de segunda geração. Variou-se a produtividade (0,28 e 1,11 g/L.h), o preço (R$ 4,50 R$ 9,00), o custo do fermentador (três cenários entre US$ 475 - 3.013 mil) e a capacidade produtiva da planta (dez cenários de 1.000 a 35.000 mil t/ano). As visões de resultado oferecem a margem de contribuição, lucratividade líquida da operação, bem como o ponto de breakeven. Recomenda-se redirecionar parte dos esforços de pesquisa voltados a um aumento do teor de P3HB na célula para a melhoria da produtividade do processo, que é o fator-chave para que o processo se torne economicamente mais atrativo. / Polyihydroxyalkanoates are biodegradable polymers, synthetized by bacteria from renewable sources of carbon. This thesis focuses on production of P3HB from xylose in the context of a standard sugar and ethanol plant, cogenerates steam and electrical energy utilizing sugarcane bagasse and agricultural residues. PHAs production from xylose, discarded in most mills nowadays, may enable profitability of 2nd generation bioethanol. Productivity varied from 0,28 to 1,11 g/L.h, and PHB price ranged from R$ 4,50 to R$ 9,00 per kilo. Fermentor cost was studied in 3 scenarios from US$ 475 to 3.013 thousand and the production capacity was analyzed in ten different scenarios, from 1,000 to 35,000 thousand tonnes/year. Result reviews offer contribution margin, net operational profit, as well as breakeven point analysis. Recommended is to redirect part of the research efforts from improving P3HB yields to process productivity improvement, which turned out to be the key factor to economic feasibility.

Os ambientes costeiros marinhos são sítios de uma intensa produção, movimentação e enterramento de carbono orgânico, já que uma fração substancial do material orgânico produzido na zona eufótica deposita-se nos sedimentos e constitui a principal fonte de alimento para o bentos. O objetivo geral deste trabalho é estudar a influência da quantidade, origem e qualidade (composição bioquímica) da matéria orgânica sedimentar sobre a estrutura e distribuição vertical e horizontal da meiofauna e macrofauna bentônicas, em três ambientes com aportes diferenciados de matéria orgânica e submetidos a duas condições oceanográficas diferentes. Foram realizadas 2 campanhas de coleta em 6 estações localizadas no Canal de São Sebastião (CSS), Enseada de Caraguatatuba e Baía de Castelhanos. Em cada estação, foram analisadas as variáveis físico-químicas da água do mar, topografia do fundo, taxa de sedimentação atual. Coletaram-se amostras de sedimentos para análise das características granulométricas, concentração de pigmentos fotossintéticos, teores de matéria orgânica, carbono orgânico, nitrogênio e enxofre total, biopolímeros orgânicos (carboidratos, lipídios e proteínas), concentração e composição dos ácidos graxos, meiofauna e macrofauna, em sete horizontes da coluna sedimentar. As concentrações de pigmentos fotossintéticos, carbono orgânico, biopolímeros orgânicos, carbono biopolimérico e da razão PRT/CHO mostram que com exceção das estações 1 e 6, os sedimentos das demais áreas da região do CSS apresentam um certo grau de eutrofizacão e recebem um aporte importante de detritos orgânicos derivados da produção primária planctônica e bentônica, em diferentes estados de degradação. A composição dos ácidos graxos evidencia que a matéria orgânica particulada possui uma origem principalmente autóctone, e está constituída por uma combinação de material derivado do plâncton vivo ou detrítico, das microalgas bentônicas, da produção bacteriana e da fauna associada ao sedimento, havendo uma contribuição terrestre relativamente pequena. Nos locais estudados na região do CSS a quantidade do alimento não é um fator limitante; porém, a variação na sua qualidade em função de aportes esporádicos de matéria orgânica lábil, derivada da produção primária planctônica e bentônica, é um fator com importante influência na estruturação das comunidades bentônicas. / Coastal marine environments are places of intensive production, movement and burial of organic carbon, due to a considerable fraction of the organic material produced in the euphotic zone is deposited on sediments and represents the main food source for the benthos. The general aim of this work is to study the influence of sedimentary organic matter quantity, origin and quality (biochemical composition) on the structure, vertical and horizontal distribution of benthic meiofauna and macrofauna, in three environments with different organic inputs and under two different oceanographic conditions. Two sampling surveys were performed at 6 stations located in the São Sebastião Channel (SSC), Caraguatatuba Bight, and Castelhanos Bay. At each site the physico-chemical variables of marine water, bottom topography and the sedimentation rate were analyzed. Sediment samples were taken to analyze granulometric characteristics, photosynthetic pigment concentrations, organic matter, organic carbon, nitrogen and sulphur contents, organic biopolymers (carbohydrates, lipids and proteins), concentration and composition of fatty acids, meiofauna and macrofauna in seven sediment layers. Phytopigments, organic carbon, organic biopolymers and biopolymeric carbon concentrations and the PRT/CHO ratio show that excepting stations 1 and 6, the sediments of the other locations have a certain degree of eutrophication and receive a significant input of organic detritus derived from planktonic and benthic primary production at different stages of degradation. Fatty acids composition shows that the particulate organic matter has mainly an autochthonous origin and it is constituted by a mixture of material derived from live or dead plankton, benthic microalgae, bacterial production and from the resident fauna, having a relatively low terrestrial contribution. Food quantity is not a limiting factor at the studied sites in the SSC region; however, variability in food quality related to sporadic inputs of labile organic matter produced by planktonic and benthic primary producers, is an important structuring factor of benthic communities.

A quitosana é um biopolímero produzido a partir da quitina, presente na casca de crustáceos. O grande interesse nesta substância é atribuído à sua diversidade de aplicações industriais. A quitosana utilizada neste estudo foi quimicamente modificada para tornar-se solúvel em água. Estudou-se a estabilidade de emulsões de d-limoneno com esta quitosana, a retenção e liberação do aroma contido nas microcápsulas liofilizadas e o comportamento higroscópico destas microcápsulas. Os mesmos estudos foram realizados com maltodextrina, para comparação, já que é um produto muito utilizado como agente de encapsulação de aromas. A estabilidade das emulsões foi analisada por espectrofotometria e por cromatografia gasosa associada à técnica da análise do espaço livre. As emulsões foram caracterizadas por microscopia óptica. A análise da liberação do aroma contido nas microcápsulas foi realizada em função da umidade relativa do ambiente e da temperatura. Observou-se boa estabilidade de emulsões de d-limoneno com quitosana succinilada ao longo do tempo e características muito distintas em relação às observadas nas outras emulsões. Verificou-se 72% de retenção de d-limoneno em maltodextrina (40% p/p) e 62% de retenção de d-limoneno em quitosana modificada (1% p/p) após o processo de liofilização, sendo que durante todas as etapas do processo de encapsulação a perda de aroma em maltodextrina foi de 72%, enquanto em quitosana modificada foi de 50%. As microcápsulas de maltodextrina sofreram colapso estrutural em ambiente de 90% de umidade relativa. Os valores de umidades de monocamada das microcápsulas decaíram com o aumento da temperatura. O calor total de sorção de microcápsulas de quitosana modificada apresentou-se superior, assim como seu coeficiente de difusividade. A área superficial dos poros de microcápsulas de quitosana modificada apresentou-se superior, absorvendo água por capilares. Conclui-se que microcápsulas de quitosana modificada podem apresentar-se como uma nova opção na escolha de agentes de encapsulação de aromas. / Chitosan is a biopolymer derived from chitin, a component of the shells of crustaceans. It has been of interest due to their broad range of industrial applications. In this study, the chitosan used was chemically modified in order to become water soluble. It was studied the stability of d-limonene emulsion with modified chitosan, flavour retention and release and the hygroscopic behaviour of the microcapsules. The same tests were made with maltodextrin that is a product widely used as a flavour encapsulating agent. The stability of the emulsion was analyzed by spectrofotometry and by headspace/gas chromatography technique. The emulsion characterization was obtained by optical microscopy. Flavour release of microcapsules was measured under different relatives humidities and temperatures. It was observed an improvement on the stability of d-limonene emulsion with modified chitosan along the time and different characteristics in relation to the other. Retention of d-limonene after lyophilization in maltodextrin (40% w/w) was 72% and 62% in modified chitosan (1% w/w). Although, flavour released after encapsulation process in maltodextrin was 72% while in modified chitosan was 50%. Maltodextrin microcapsules presented structural collapse in 90% of relative humidity. The humidity monolayers decreased with temperature increasing for both microcapsules. The heat of sorption for the chitosan microcapsules was greater as well as its diffusivity coefficient. Its pore superficial area was greater. It was observed that chitosan microcapsules absorb water by capilariy absorption. The results suggest that chitosan microcapsules could be a new option of flavour encapsulating agent.

Environmental concerns arising from the use of non-degradable plastics have resulted in search for suitable substitutes. The thesis deals with new nanostructured composites based on reinforcement of nanocellulose whiskers in "green" polymers such as xylan. Since the reinforcement filler and the matrix are both biobased and are thereby environmental friendly. Xylan incorporated with cellulose whiskers films provided with improved water and oxygen barrier properties. It appears that the high degree of crystallinity of cellulose whiskers, dense composite structure formed by the whiskers and rigidly hydrogen-bonded cellulose whiskers can cause cellulose whiskers to form integrated matrix which contribute to substantial benefit in the overall reduction of transmission rate. The spectral data obtained for the NCW/xylan nanocomposite films showed that the amount of xylan adsorbed to cellulose increases with the addition of NCW in the matrix. In addition, NMR T2 relaxation experiments studies were conducted to investigate the change in the nature of carbohydrate-water interactions as a result of NCW incorporation. These results facilitated an improved understanding of the mechanisms involved in the superior barrier and mechanical properties of xylan-whisker nanocomposite films. XRD studies show that when a xylan-whisker nanocomposite films is formed the mixing occurs on the atomic scale and NCW loading increases the matrix crystallinity.

Abdominal aortic aneurysms are a leading cause of death in the U.S. where 14,000 people die from aneurysm rupture and 178,000 are diagnosed each year. A novel alternative treatment for abdominal aortic aneurysms has been proposed, where a biodegradable polymer scaffold is photopolymerized in situ around the exterior of the aneurysm. This scaffold will mechanically constrain the aneurysm from further expansion, and will deliver a drug, doxycycline, to treat the underlying biological cause of the disease. In order for device development, a suitable polymer must be designed with appropriate mechanical properties, degradation rate, polymerization, and elution rate. Poly(β-amino ester) networks have been proposed as the material of choice; however, many of their structure-property relationships have yet to be determined. Therefore, the overall goal of this work is to determine the structure-property relationships of the poly(β-amino ester) networks in order to advance the design of the treatment, and has been divided into three objectives: (1) understand the structure-property relationships of poly(β-amino ester) networks, specifically the polymerization, degradation rate, and thermo-mechanical properties, (2) determine the impact of doxycycline incorporation on degradation rate and mechanical properties, (3) evaluate the effect of simulated physiological conditions on degradation rate and mechanical properties. In the initial chapters, the fundamental structure-property relationships are established between reactant chemical structure, step-growth polymerization, photopolymerization, thermo-mechanical properties, and degradation rate using a systematic approach of two homologous series of reactants. Further tailoring of degradation rate, water content, and modulus in vitro was performed by using a copolymer network. Doxycycline inhibited photopolymerization due to overlapping absorbance spectra with the photoinitiator, but full network formation occurred by increasing the photoinitiator concentration. Networks displayed varying controlled release rates, and the underlying release mechanism was determined for each network using established methods. In order to increase mechanical properties, a co-monomer, methyl methacrylate, was added to the network to increase the glass transition temperature, toughness, and deformation capacity. These co-networks displayed temporal-control of mechanical properties in simulated physiological conditions, since degradation caused a shift in the glass transition temperature, which changed the mechanical behavior of the network. The temporal-control of mechanical properties was further investigated under degradation conditions in vitro and in vivo. Due to the mechanically active loading environment in vivo, networks displayed a decrease in toughness, yet maintained mechanical properties similar to native biological tissues. These networks establish a multifunctional biomaterials platform with materials that can be easily synthesized, photopolymerized into various geometries, and sustain mechanical properties while undergoing degradation and therapeutic agent release.

This research centers on the fabrication, characterization, and engineering of inverse opal scaffolds, a novel class of three-dimensional (3D) porous scaffolds made of biocompatible and biodegradable polymers, for applications in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. The unique features of an inverse opal scaffold include a highly ordered array of pores, uniform and finely tunable pore sizes, high interconnectivity, and great reproducibility. The first part of this work focuses on the fabrication and functionalization of inverse opal scaffolds based on poly(D,L-lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA), a biodegradable material approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The advantages of the PLGA inverse opal scaffolds are also demonstrated by comparing with their counterparts with spherical but non-uniform pores and poor interconnectivity. The second part of this work shows two examples where the PLGA inverse opal scaffolds were successfully used as a well-defined system to investigate the effect of pore size of a 3D porous scaffold on the behavior of cell and tissue growth. Specifically, I have demonstrated that i) the differentiation of progenitor cells in vitro was dependent on the pore size of PLGA-based scaffolds and the behavior of the cells was determined by the size of individual pores where the cells resided in, and ii) the neovascularization process in vivo could be directly manipulated by controlling a combination of pore and window sizes when they were applied to a mouse model. The last part of this work deals with the novel application of photoacoustic microscopy (PAM), a volumetric imaging modality recently developed, to tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, in the context of non-invasive imaging and quantification of cells and tissues grown in PLGA inverse opal scaffolds, both in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, the capability of PAM to monitor and quantitatively analyze the degradation of the scaffolds themselves was also demonstrated.

Complex organization is found in many biological systems. For example, biopolymers could possess very hierarchic structure, which provides their functional peculiarity. Understating such, complex organization allows describing biological phenomena and predicting molecule functions. Besides, we can try to characterize the specific phenomenon by some probabilistic quantities (variances, means, etc), assuming the primary biopolymer structure to be randomly formed according to some statistical distribution. Such a formulation is oriented toward evolutionary problems.Artificially constructed biological network is another common object of statistical physics with rich functional properties. A behavior of cells is a consequence of complex interactions between its numerous components, such as DNA, RNA, proteins and small molecules. Cells use signaling pathways and regulatory mechanisms to coordinate multiple processes, allowing them to respond and to adapt to changing environment. Recent theoretical advances allow us to describe cellular network structure using graph concepts to reveal the principal organizational features shared with numerous non-biological networks.The aim of this thesis is to develop bunch of methods for studying statistical and dynamic objects of complex architecture and, in particular, scale-free structures, which have no characteristic spatial and/or time scale. For such systems, the use of standard mathematical methods, relying on the average behavior of the whole system, is often incorrect or useless, while a detailed many-body description is almost hopeless because of the combinatorial complexity of the problem. Here we focus on two problems.The first part addresses to statistical analysis of random biopolymers. Apart from the evolutionary context, our studies cover more general problems of planar topology appeared in description of various systems, ranging from gauge theory to biophysics. We investigate analytically and numerically a phase transition of a generic planar matching problem, from the regime, where almost all the vertices are paired, to the situation, where a finite fraction of them remains unmatched.The second part of this work focus on statistical properties of networks. We demonstrate the possibility to define co-expression gene clusters within a network context from their specific motif distribution signatures. We also show how a method based on the shortest path function (SPF) can be applied to gene interactions sub-networks of co-expression gene clusters, to efficiently predict novel regulatory transcription factors (TFs). The biological significance of this method by applying it on groups of genes with a shared regulatory locus, found by genetic genomics, is presented. Finally, we discuss formation of stable patters of motifs in networks under selective evolution in context of creation of islands of "superfamilies".

Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit der theoretischen Beschreibung der komplexen physikalischen Eigenschaften von Netzwerken semiflexibler Polymere. Ausgehend vom mathematischen Modell eines semiflexiblen Polymers, der \"wurmartigen Kette\" (wormlike chain), werden zwei wesentlich neue Konzepte zur Beschreibung dieses ungeordneten Materialzustands eingeführt. Einerseits wird das experimentell beobachtete, glasähnliche Fließen solcher Materialien durch das phänomenologische Modell eines semiflexiblen Polymers mit verallgemeinerter Reibung beschrieben, welche den Gesamteffekt der physikalischen oder auch chemischen Wechselwirkungen der Polymere untereinander widerspiegelt. Andererseits wird das bestehende Konzept der durch seine Nachbarfilamente erzeugten röhrenförmigen Einsperrung eines Filaments erweitert und die experimentell nachgewiesene, räumlich veränderliche Struktur der Röhre erklärt. Die erzielten Ergebnisse werden durch Rechnersimulationen sowie durch experimentelle Daten gestützt.

Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are polyesters composed of (R)-3-hydroxy-fatty acids. A variety of gram-positive as well as gram-negative bacteria and some archaea are able to produce these biopolymers as energy and carbon storage materials. In times of unbalanced growth, when carbon is available in excess but other nutrients are limited, PHA inclusions are formed. These granules are water-insoluble, stored intracellularly and can be maintained outside the cell as beads. The key enzyme for the formation of PHA inclusions is the PHA synthase PhaC, which catalyses the polymerization of (R)- 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA to PHA with the concomitant release of CoA. The PHA synthase from Ralstonia eutropha (currently Cupriavidus necator), which is covalently bound to the PHA granule surface, tolerates fusions to its N terminus without loss of activity. In this study it was investigated if it would also tolerate translational fusions to its C terminus. A specially designed linker was employed, aiming at maintaining the hydrophobic surroundings of the R. eutropha synthase C terminus to allow proper folding and activity. Two reporter proteins were tested as fusion partners, the maltose binding protein MalE and the green fluorescent protein GFP. As GFP is a hydrophobic protein itself, no additional linker between the PHA synthase and the reporter protein was necessary to produce PHA granules displaying the functional fusion protein on the surface. Principally, the PHA synthase PhaC tolerates translational fusions to its C terminus but the nature of the fusion partner influences the functionality. Recently, PHA granules have often been acknowledged as bio-beads. A one-step production allows the formation of functionalised beads without the need for further cross-linking to impart desired surface properties. PHA beads displaying a gold- or silica-binding peptide at the N terminus of PhaC were constructed and tested for their applicability. Additionally, these beads were able to bind IgG due to the ZZ domain of the IgG binding protein A, which was employed as a linker sequence. These functionalised beads can be used as molecular tools in bioimaging and biomedicine, combining organic core with inorganic-binding shell structures. In a different biomimetic approach, the display of ten lysine residues at the granule surface was achieved using the phasin protein PhaP as the anchoring matrix. Extensive work was performed in an attempt to also employ the synthase protein, but was unsuccessful. These positively charged bio-beads can be used for dispersion or crosslinking experiments as well as silica binding.