In this thesis, I will argue that the identity of Black women with mental and physical health conditions affects how others perceive and treat them in clinical, social, and occupational spaces, which in turn influences the paths these women take to seek healing. Black women choose to identify to various degrees with social categories such as disease and race. The identities that an individual accepts affect how they are perceived, and this perception of who they are, which may or may not match with their internal beliefs, affects how they are treated. This extends to clinical spaces, where treatment of a patient is reflected by the doctor-patient relationship. It also extends to social and career-based settings, where women experience acceptance or rejection due to the way others see them. This perception-based treatment and the identity that these women claim factor into the importance of certain healing methods in their lives.

Black mothers socialize their daughters to embody the strong Black woman (SBW) schema to help them navigate gendered racist oppression. While research indicates that ascribing to the SBW schema offers Black women psychosocial benefits (e.g., increased self-esteem), identifying with the SBW schema has been linked to several negative psychological outcomes (e.g., anxiety, depression, and stress). Considering the evidenced negative implications associated with identifying with the SBW schema on Black women's mental health, the current study had three aims: (1) investigate the socialization messages Black women received about strong Black womanhood, (2) explore the extent to which they identified with these messages, and (3) assess the implications of this socialization on Black women's functioning. To address these aims researchers conducted semi-structured interviews with 11 Black college women (Mage = 20.09; SD = 1.04). For this manuscript, we extracted data pertaining to aim one and analyzed this data using a consensual qualitative research (CQR) data approach. Findings revealed messages Black women were given about strong Black womanhood (i.e., know your worth, depend on yourself, overcome societal barriers, little to no messages about strong Black womanhood, and additional responses) and illuminated behaviors mothers modeled that exemplified strength (i.e., self-sufficient, preserving, caretaking, and additional responses). Findings derived from this study have the potential to inform clinical intervention with Black women and, more specifically, provide insight as to how clinicians may work with Black women to mitigate the impact of the SBW schema on their mental health.

Racism, sexism, and other forms of oppression are consequential to Black women's mental health. The current research examines the psychological impact of gendered racism, which is oppression on the basis of both gender and race, and the extent to which gendered racial identity may buffer the association between gendered racism and psychological distress (i.e., anxiety and depressive symptoms) among U.S. Black women. The study includes a sample of 150 Black women (at least 18 years of age or older, mean age = 39.11) recruited using Qualtrics panel service. Women were administered measures of gendered racism, gendered racial identity, and mental health (i.e., anxiety and depression). Data was analyzed through a series of bivariate correlations and moderation analyses using PROCESS macro. Results revealed that gendered racial identity did not moderate the association between gendered racism and mental health. This study advances our understanding of the oppression Black women contend with on the basis of their race and gender and offers insight about the factors that may mitigate the psychological impact of this phenomenon on Black women.

Thesis (LLM)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / Includes bibliography / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The South African land question presents complex legal and social challenges. The legal aspects of land are inextricably linked to other socio-economic aspects, such as access to housing, healthcare, water and social security. The Constitution provides for land reform in the property clause - section 25. This clause, while seeking to redress the colonial land dispossessions, by means of a tripartite land reform programme, also protects the property rights of all. The different legs of the land reform programme are redistribution, which is aimed at enabling citizens to access land on an equitable basis; restitution, which sets out to restore property rights or grant equitable redress to those dispossessed of land as a result of past racially discriminatory laws or practices and finally tenure reform. Tenure reform is premised on transforming the landholding system of those with legally insecure tenure as a result of past racially discriminatory laws or practices or granting comparable redress. The primary focus of this thesis is on tenure security for black rural women in South Africa, while using the Namibian experience with regard of the same group as a comparison. Historically, before colonialism, landholding was governed by the customary law of the various tribes in South Africa. This landholding system underwent extensive change through the colonial era that ultimately led to a fragmented and disproportionate distribution of land based on race, with insecure land rights particularly in rural areas, where women are the majority. With the dawn of the Constitutional era, South Africa embarked upon a social justice project, based on a supreme Constitution, embodying human dignity, equality, non-racialism, accountability and the rule of law. Land reform forms part of the social project and is governed by the Constitution and influenced by both the civil and customary law. With the South African tenure context, policy documents, legislation and case law will be analysed. In this process the role of the stakeholders and other related factors, for example customary practices are also considered. The analysis indicates that case law has played a significant part in addressing women’s plight with regard to equality, tenure reform and abolishing suppressive legislative provisions and practices. It is furthermore clear that the different categories of women are affected differently by the overarching tenure and other related measures. For a legal comparative study, Namibia was chosen for the following reasons: (a) both South Africa and Namibia have a shared colonial and apartheid background; (b) both countries have a Constitutional foundation incorporating human rights and equality; and (c) both countries have embarked on land reform programmes. However, contrary to the South African position, both the Namibian Constitution and its National Land Policy are more gender-specific. Tenure reform is an on-going process in Namibia in terms of which specific categories of women have benefitted lately. To that end the gender inclined approach may be of specific value for the South African situation, in general, but in particular concerning black rural women. Consequently, particular recommendations, linked to the specific categories of women, are finally provided for the South African position, in light of the Namibian experience. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Suid-Afrikaanse grondkwessie beliggaam ingewikkelde regs- en sosiale uitdagings. Die regsaspekte wat verband hou met grond is ook onlosmaaklik gekoppel aan sosio-ekonomiese kwessies, soos byvoorbeeld toegang to behuising, gesondheidsdienste, water en sosiale sekuriteit. Die Grondwet maak vir grondhervorming in die eiendomsklousule, artikel 25, voorsiening. Die eiendomsklousule beoog om koloniale grondontnemings (deur ‘n drie-ledige oorhoofse grondhervormingsprogram) aan te spreek en terselfdertyd eiendomsregte te beskerm. Die oorhoofse grondhervormingsprogram bestaan uit herverdeling, waarmee billike toegang tot grond vir alle burgers bewerkstellig word; restitusie, waarvolgens herstel (of ander billike vergoeding) vir persone en gemeenskappe wat grond en regte as gevolg van rasdiskriminerende maatreëls verloor het, bewerkstellig word en laastens grondbeheerhervorming. Grondbeheerhervorming behels die aanpas of opgradeer van grondbeheervorme (of die betaal van billike vergoeding) in gevalle waar regte onseker (of swak) is weens rasdiskriminerende maatreëls en praktyke van die verlede. Die hooffokus van die tesis is op die regsekerheid (al dan nie) van grondbeheer van swart landelike vrouens in Suid- Afrika, met die Namibiese ervaring as regsvergelykende komponent. Histories, voordat kolonialisme ingetree het, was grondbeheer deur die tradisionele inheemse reg van die verskillende gemeenskappe in Suid-Afrika gereguleer. Hierdie grondbeheersisteme het grootskaalse verandering gedurende die koloniale tydperk ondergaan. Dit het eindelik tot ‘n rasgebaseerde, gefragmenteerde sisteem gelei waarvan die verdeling van grond disproporsioneel was en die grondbeheervorme regsonseker, veral in die landelike gebiede waar vrouens die meerderheid van die bevolking uitmaak. Toe die grondwetlike era in Suid-Afrika aanbreek, is daar met ‘n sosiale geregtigheidprojek (heropbou en ontwikkeling) begin. Hierdie benadering is op die Grondwet gefundeer waarin menswaardigheid, gelykheid, nie-rassigheid, rekenskap en regsorde beliggaam is. Grondhervorming vorm deel van die oorhoofse projek en word deur die Grondwet bestuur en deur beide die nasionale en die Inheems reg beïnvloed. Met betrekking tot die Suid-Afrikaanse grondbeheeristeem word beleidsdokumente, wetgewing en regspraak geanaliseer. In hierdie proses word die rol van belanghebbendes en ander verwante aspekte, soos byvoorbeeld Inheemse partyke, ook oorweeg. Die analise dui aan dat dit veral ontwikkelings in regspraak is wat ‘n groot bydrae gelewer het om vrouens se stryd om gelykheid en sekerheid van grondbeheer te bevorder en wat gelei het tot die afskaffing van onderdrukkende wetgewende maatreëls en praktyke. Dit is verder ook duidelik dat verskillende kategorieë van vrouens verskillend deur die oorhoofse grondbeheer- en ander verwante maatreëls, geaffekteer word. Namibië is vir die regsvergelykende analise geïdentifiseer omdat (a) beide Suid- Afrika en Namibië ‘n koloniale en apartheidsgeskiedenis deel; (b) beide jurisdiksies ‘n grondwetlike basis het waarin menseregte en gelykheid beliggaam word; en (c) beide lande grondhervormingsprogramme van stapel gestuur het. In teenstelling met die Suid-Afrikaanse benadering, is die Namibiese Grondwet en die nasionale grondbeleid egter meer geslag-spesifiek. Grondbeheerhervorming in Namibië is ‘n aaneenlopende proses waaruit veral sekere kategorieë vrouens onlangs voordeel getrek het. Om daardie rede mag die geslag-spesifke benadering wat in Namibië gevolg word vir Suid-Afrika ook van waarde wees, nie net in die algemeen by grondbeheer nie, maar spesifiek ook met betrekking tot swart landelike vroue. In die lig van die Namibiese ervaring word daar ten slotte spesifieke aanbevelings tot die Suid-Afrikaanse sisteem, gekoppel aan bepaalde kategorieë van vroue, gemaak.

Introduction: The World Health Organisation (WHO) defines overweight and obesity as a condition in which an abnormal or excessive fat accumulation exists to an extent in which health and well-being are impaired. The most recent South African National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (SANHANES) reported that the prevalence of overweight and obesity, according to body mass index (BMI) classification, in all South African women was significantly higher than in men (24.8% and 39.2% compared to 20.1% and 10.6% for women and men, respectively). Blood pressure is often increased in obese patients and is probably the most common co-morbidity associated with obesity. Currently approximately one third (30.4%) of the adult South African population has hypertension. Hypertension is responsible for a significant percentage of the high rates of cardiovascular disease and stroke in South Africa. Limited South African data are available regarding the agreement between the measures of adiposity, including BMI, waist circumference (WC) and percentage body fat (%BF), and the association with high blood pressure. Measures of adiposity were found in previous research to be ethnicity, age and gender specific. Measuring %BF to classify adiposity takes body composition into account and is a more physiological measurement of obesity than BMI. Objective: This study aimed to investigate the agreement between adiposity classified by BMI categories and %BF cut-off points, and the association between the different measures of adiposity and high blood pressure. Method: A representative sample of black women (n=435), aged 29 years to 65 years from Ikageng in the North West Province of South Africa were included in this cross-sectional epidemiological study. Socio-demographic questionnaires were completed. Pregnancy and HIV tests were performed and those with positive test results or those who declined HIV testing were excluded. Weight and height were measured and BMI was calculated. WC, %BF using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), and blood pressure were measured. Results: The prevalence of overweight (BMI 25.0 kg/m² – 29.9 kg/m²) was 24.4% and obesity (BMI ≥ 30kg/m²) was 52.4%. High blood pressure was found to be present in more than two thirds of the study participants (68.5%). In this study BMI, WC and %BF as measures of adiposity were significantly correlated. There were significant agreements between combined overweight/obesity that was defined by %BF (≥35.8% 29-45 years; ≥37.7% ≥50 years) and BMI ≥ 25kg/m² (ᵡ²=199.0, p<0.0001; κ=0.68, p<0.0001), and between the presence of high %BF and obesity only, that was defined by BMI ≥ 30 kg/m² (ᵡ²=129.1, p<0.0001; κ=0.48, p<0.0001). The effect size of the agreement between the WHO BMI category for combined overweight/obesity and %BF cut-off points according to the kappa value of κ=0.68 was substantial (κ range 0.61-0.80). The effect size of the agreement between the WHO BMI category for obesity only and %BF cut-off points according to the kappa value of κ=0.48 was moderate (κ range 0.41-0.60). No association was found between high blood pressure and BMI categorised combined overweight/obesity (ᵡ²=3.19; p=0.74), but a significant association was found between high blood pressure and BMI categorised obesity only (ᵡ²=4.10; p=0.043). A significantly increased odds ratio (OR) of high blood pressure existed in the obesity BMI category (OR=1.52; p=0.045) as opposed to the overweight/obesity BMI category (OR=1.51; p=0.075). There were significant associations between high blood pressure and WC ≥ 80cm (ᵡ²=10.9; p=0.001; OR=2.08; p=0.001), WC ≥ 92cm (ᵡ²=20.1; p<0.0001; OR=1.79; p=0.011) and %BF above the age-specific cut-off points (ᵡ²=6.61; p=0.010; OR=1.70; p=0.011). Discussion and conclusion: This study found that in a sample of black urban South African women significant agreements existed between adiposity defined by %BF cut-off points for combined overweight/obesity and both WHO BMI categorised combined overweight/obesity (BMI ≥ 25 kg/m2) and obesity only (BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2), respectively. A stronger agreement was found between WHO categorised combined overweight/obesity and %BF. Furthermore, this study concluded that the BMI category according to the WHO cut-off point for overweight/obesity had insufficient sensitivity to detect the presence of high blood pressure, and that the BMI category according to the WHO cut-off point for obesity alone could detect the presence of high blood pressure. The WHO BMI classification for obesity, in contrast to the WHO BMI classification for combined overweight/obesity, is therefore appropriate to classify these black South African women at increased risk for high blood pressure. The WC and %BF cut-off points used which were specific to ethnicity, age and gender, had significant associations with high blood pressure and have good capacity to detect high blood pressure. In this study abdominal obesity as defined by the South African cut-off point of WC ≥ 92 cm had a stronger association with high blood pressure, than the international cut-off point (WC ≥ 80 cm). The South African cut-off point is, therefore, more appropriate to screen black South African women for increased risk for high blood pressure. The study therefore concluded that a stronger agreement was found between WHO categorised combined overweight/obesity and %BF than with obesity only (BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2). To ensure consistency and accuracy, and to take body composition into consideration, it is recommended that, where possible, in clinical practice the appropriate WC and %BF cut-off points together with BMI categories should be used as measures of adiposity for diagnosis of overweight and obesity and to screen or detect an increased risk for high blood pressure. / MSc (Dietetics), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Introduction: The World Health Organisation (WHO) defines overweight and obesity as a condition in which an abnormal or excessive fat accumulation exists to an extent in which health and well-being are impaired. The most recent South African National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (SANHANES) reported that the prevalence of overweight and obesity, according to body mass index (BMI) classification, in all South African women was significantly higher than in men (24.8% and 39.2% compared to 20.1% and 10.6% for women and men, respectively). Blood pressure is often increased in obese patients and is probably the most common co-morbidity associated with obesity. Currently approximately one third (30.4%) of the adult South African population has hypertension. Hypertension is responsible for a significant percentage of the high rates of cardiovascular disease and stroke in South Africa. Limited South African data are available regarding the agreement between the measures of adiposity, including BMI, waist circumference (WC) and percentage body fat (%BF), and the association with high blood pressure. Measures of adiposity were found in previous research to be ethnicity, age and gender specific. Measuring %BF to classify adiposity takes body composition into account and is a more physiological measurement of obesity than BMI. Objective: This study aimed to investigate the agreement between adiposity classified by BMI categories and %BF cut-off points, and the association between the different measures of adiposity and high blood pressure. Method: A representative sample of black women (n=435), aged 29 years to 65 years from Ikageng in the North West Province of South Africa were included in this cross-sectional epidemiological study. Socio-demographic questionnaires were completed. Pregnancy and HIV tests were performed and those with positive test results or those who declined HIV testing were excluded. Weight and height were measured and BMI was calculated. WC, %BF using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), and blood pressure were measured. Results: The prevalence of overweight (BMI 25.0 kg/m² – 29.9 kg/m²) was 24.4% and obesity (BMI ≥ 30kg/m²) was 52.4%. High blood pressure was found to be present in more than two thirds of the study participants (68.5%). In this study BMI, WC and %BF as measures of adiposity were significantly correlated. There were significant agreements between combined overweight/obesity that was defined by %BF (≥35.8% 29-45 years; ≥37.7% ≥50 years) and BMI ≥ 25kg/m² (ᵡ²=199.0, p<0.0001; κ=0.68, p<0.0001), and between the presence of high %BF and obesity only, that was defined by BMI ≥ 30 kg/m² (ᵡ²=129.1, p<0.0001; κ=0.48, p<0.0001). The effect size of the agreement between the WHO BMI category for combined overweight/obesity and %BF cut-off points according to the kappa value of κ=0.68 was substantial (κ range 0.61-0.80). The effect size of the agreement between the WHO BMI category for obesity only and %BF cut-off points according to the kappa value of κ=0.48 was moderate (κ range 0.41-0.60). No association was found between high blood pressure and BMI categorised combined overweight/obesity (ᵡ²=3.19; p=0.74), but a significant association was found between high blood pressure and BMI categorised obesity only (ᵡ²=4.10; p=0.043). A significantly increased odds ratio (OR) of high blood pressure existed in the obesity BMI category (OR=1.52; p=0.045) as opposed to the overweight/obesity BMI category (OR=1.51; p=0.075). There were significant associations between high blood pressure and WC ≥ 80cm (ᵡ²=10.9; p=0.001; OR=2.08; p=0.001), WC ≥ 92cm (ᵡ²=20.1; p<0.0001; OR=1.79; p=0.011) and %BF above the age-specific cut-off points (ᵡ²=6.61; p=0.010; OR=1.70; p=0.011). Discussion and conclusion: This study found that in a sample of black urban South African women significant agreements existed between adiposity defined by %BF cut-off points for combined overweight/obesity and both WHO BMI categorised combined overweight/obesity (BMI ≥ 25 kg/m2) and obesity only (BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2), respectively. A stronger agreement was found between WHO categorised combined overweight/obesity and %BF. Furthermore, this study concluded that the BMI category according to the WHO cut-off point for overweight/obesity had insufficient sensitivity to detect the presence of high blood pressure, and that the BMI category according to the WHO cut-off point for obesity alone could detect the presence of high blood pressure. The WHO BMI classification for obesity, in contrast to the WHO BMI classification for combined overweight/obesity, is therefore appropriate to classify these black South African women at increased risk for high blood pressure. The WC and %BF cut-off points used which were specific to ethnicity, age and gender, had significant associations with high blood pressure and have good capacity to detect high blood pressure. In this study abdominal obesity as defined by the South African cut-off point of WC ≥ 92 cm had a stronger association with high blood pressure, than the international cut-off point (WC ≥ 80 cm). The South African cut-off point is, therefore, more appropriate to screen black South African women for increased risk for high blood pressure. The study therefore concluded that a stronger agreement was found between WHO categorised combined overweight/obesity and %BF than with obesity only (BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2). To ensure consistency and accuracy, and to take body composition into consideration, it is recommended that, where possible, in clinical practice the appropriate WC and %BF cut-off points together with BMI categories should be used as measures of adiposity for diagnosis of overweight and obesity and to screen or detect an increased risk for high blood pressure. / MSc (Dietetics), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

The goal of this study was to understand black women’s perspectives on stay-at-home mothering and examine the ways in which Mocha Moms, Inc. provides support. Twelve African American mothers from three chapters of Mocha Moms, Inc. were interviewed and data were analyzed and coded for themes. Findings indicate that participants did not aspire to stay home with their children. Additionally, participants reject stereotypical ideas of at-home mothering. They also see themselves as the primary educators of their children. Finally, they do not feel respected in the black community or in society.

Within the scope of this thesis, I provide close textual and visual readings of director/actor/producer Tyler Perry's most well-known character, Mable "Madea" Simmons -- a performance he does in full female drag attire -- focusing on his mainstream hit film, Madea Goes to Jail (2009). My reading of the character of Madea veers against the common narrative her existence being just another recycled trope of men disguised as women only to perform in stereotypical and demonizing behavior. I argue Madea represents what I refer to as a "trans*female character", within the space of Perry's popular film that feature her. Read through the lens of being trans*female character, I propose this shift in analysis and critique of cinematic displays of drag helps to transgress beyond male/female binaries of acceptable and possible visual gender representations. More in-depth, using the theoretical concept of Gwendolyn Pough's "bringing wreck", I make the argument that while ostensibly representing the "angry black woman" stereotype, Madea's characterization and actions within the film represent strategies and efforts to not be contained within hegemonic ideals of black female respectability politics and the law efforts to put her behind bars. By "bringing wreck", Madea's fictional acts of violence and talking back are read as a strategy that reflects a historical trend of misrecognition that renders black women's concerns and discontent with marginalization as irrational anger. / text

Controlling images and negative stereotypes have had damaging effects on black men and women. The entertainment industry continues to play a vital role in perpetuating these historically damaging images to people all over the world. Early representations of black men and women within entertainment were performed by white men under the guise of blackface. These representations were offensive and inaccurate portrayals of black life. Early blackface minstrel performances of black women were performed by white men in blackface who were also cross-dressing. Their performances presented black women in stereotypical roles which have become a norm. Recently, there has been a phenomenon of black men cross-dressing as black women portraying negative stereotypes. These depictions done under the guise of comedy further perpetuate controlling images of black women to the world. This research examines how current and former displays of gender minstrelsy manipulate the image of Black womanhood.

The purpose of this study is to explore Black women’s experience of becoming and being entrepreneurs and accumulating wealth. Through interview questions that examine social capital, this study allows eight Black women to recall their ever-changing and evolving experience of entrepreneurship and economic mobility. This qualitative study goes beyond empirical data of the wealth gap and the numerical trends of Black women entrepreneurs. The study allowed for Black women to share their experience with wealth accumulation and the social factors, such as networks and relationships that attributed to starting and sustaining a business. Findings and implications will be discussed.