L'objectif de la thèse est d'étudier la transformation de la fraction cellulosique de la biomasse en acide lévulinique. Cet acide est une molécule plateforme permettant un accès à de multiples produits, tels que des solvants, des monomères ou encore des molécules à plus forte valeur ajoutée.Nous proposons d'étudier la transformation de la cellulose en acide lévulinique catalysée par des solutions aqueuses concentrées en acides de Brønsted. La forte acidité de ces milieux et leur capacité à rompre les liaisons hydrogène de la cellulose rendent possible des réactions à température modérée (80°C), ce qui laisse espérer la production sélective d'acide lévulinique.L'état de l'art concernant la production d'acide lévulinique à partir de glucose ou de cellulose est d’abord présenté, ainsi qu’une étude bibliographique sur les techniques permettant la mesure d’acidité de milieux concentrés.La caractérisation de l’acidité des milieux semblant être un point clé pour contrôler la réaction, la seconde partie concernera les mesures d’acidité des milieux concentrés utilisés. La méthodologie expérimentale pour identifier et quantifier les produits de réaction de la cellulose ainsi que les paramètres critiques qui la régissent sont ensuite détaillés.Enfin l’étude s’achèvera par deux chapitres traitant de la transformation du glucose ou la cellulose en acide lévulinique dans des milieux comportant une forte acidité de Brønsted combinée, ou non, avec des sels métalliques. La transformation du glucose conduit à des sélectivités en acide lévulinique de 50 mol% dans l’acide sulfurique 65 % et supérieures à 70 mol% dans l'acide sulfurique 48 % en présence de chlorure d'aluminium hydraté. La transformation de la cellulose conduit à des sélectivités en acide lévulinique d'environ 43 mol% dans les milieux acides de Brønsted concentrés et 60 mol% lorsque des sels métalliques sont ajoutés. De telles sélectivités en acide lévulinique n'ont jamais été décrites dans les milieux concentrés. / The thesis presented in this document aims at converting lignocellulosic biomass into levulinic acid. This target is a valuable building block which can lead to various products.This platform intermediate can be obtained by acid-catalyzed conversion of cellulose contained in raw biomass. However, the state of the art concerning this acid-catalyzed reaction revealed that the current conditions (diluted acids in harsh temperature conditions) result in numerous by-products formation. The selectivity issue often deals with process control, in particular with reaction time optimization.Our approach lies in using concentrated Brønsted acids as alternative media to catalyze cellulose conversion. Indeed, the high acidity level allow the interaction with hydrogen bonds in cellulose fibrils and favor cellulose decristallization. This property should promote the transformation of cellulose into levulinic acid at lower temperature thus limiting the formation of by-products. Therefore, acidity measurements in such media have been developed and performed. An extensive study on glucose and Avicel cellulose conversion in concentrated aqueous solutions of sulfuric acid was performed at 80°C. Levulinic acid yields, up to 50 mol%, were determined by HPLC analysis and a special attention was dedicated to the identification and quantification of soluble or insoluble by-products, allowing the characterization of new species never described in aqueous solutions. Referring to the acidity levels previously determined, a comparison between acidity and catalytic results will be setted.Finally, the effect of metallic chloride addition on the transformation of glucose and cellulose in sulphuric acid solutions has been investigated, revealing improvements yielding up to 70 mol% levulinic acid. This range of selectivity is unprecedented at such a low temperature.

Submitted by Geandra Rodrigues (geandrar@gmail.com) on 2018-09-27T15:51:52Z No. of bitstreams: 1 daniellelobojustopinheiro.pdf: 20180936 bytes, checksum: 98e45bb923da9d2234c5a70398868760 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Adriana Oliveira (adriana.oliveira@ufjf.edu.br) on 2018-10-01T18:08:20Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 daniellelobojustopinheiro.pdf: 20180936 bytes, checksum: 98e45bb923da9d2234c5a70398868760 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-10-01T18:08:20Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 daniellelobojustopinheiro.pdf: 20180936 bytes, checksum: 98e45bb923da9d2234c5a70398868760 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2018-09-09 / CAPES - Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Azalactonas são heterociclos derivados de aminoácidos protegidos e ciclizados. Por conter em sua estrutura um sítio eletrofílico, um sítio pro-nucleofílico, além de um sítio nucleofílico ou eletrofílico (que será determinado pelas condições reacionais), esses compostos são extremamente versáteis. Nesse trabalho é demonstrado a reação das azalactonas com o reagente de Schwartz, que através de uma de redução quimiosseletiva gera derivados de aminoaldeídos com excelentes rendimentos em apenas 2 minutos de reação. Outra reação de redução quimiosseletiva demonstrada no trabalho envolve o uso de azalactonas de Erlenmeyer, hidrogênio e Pd/C como catalisador. Dessa forma, azalactonas saturadas funcionalizadas, foram possíveis de ser obtidas em uma metodologia simples, com excelentes rendimentos. O processo foi ainda adaptado para reações em um sistema one-pot, produzindo assim, adutos de Michael, Mannich e produtos de abertura de maneira simples e eficiente. O sítio nucleofílico das azalactonas também é explorado em reações de dimerização diastereosseletivas, utilizando uma base de Brønsted formada in situ pela reação entre acetonitrila e sal tricloroacetato de potássio ou sódio. O mecanismo da reação e estudos cinéticos são demonstrados a partir de uma análise obtida por experimentos online no RMN de ¹H. Além disso, um análogo de um produto natural é obtido através de uma redução estereosseletiva dos dímeros. O sítio nucleofílico das azalactonas também é explorado em reações de carbonilação α-arilativa catalisadas por Pd, utilizando o sistema de duas câmaras, seguido de sua abertura, obtendo, dessa forma, aminoácidos α,α-dissubstituídos protegidos. O mecanismo da reação é proposto após reações controle terem sido realizadas. Os mesmos aminoácidos também puderam ser sintetizados e marcados com o ¹³C. Esses compostos marcados foram aplicados em reações quimiosseletivas, como a reação de descarboxilação de Krapcho, reduções quimiosseletivas, e síntese de heterociclos como as oxazolonas e pirazolonas. / Azlactones are heterocycles derived from amino acids. There are an electrophilic site, a pro-nucleophilic site, and a nucleophilic or electrophilic site (determined by the reaction conditions). These compounds are extremely versatile. In this work the reaction of the azlactones with Schwartz reagent is demonstrated. A chemosselective reduction of these compounds is possible to generate aminoaldehydes in excellent yields in only 2 minutes reaction. Chemosselective reduction of Erlenmeyer azlactones is also demonstrated by using hydrogen gas and Pd / C as a catalyst. In this way, functionalized saturated azlactones are possible to obtain in excellent yields. The process was further adapted to reactions in a one-pot system, producing Michael, Mannich and opening products in a simple and efficient manner. The nucleophilic site of azlactones is also explored in the diastereoselective dimerization reactions promoted by a Brønsted base, affording by the reaction in situ between acetonitrile and potassium or sodium trichloroacetate salt. The mechanism of the reaction and kinetic studies are demonstrated from an analysis obtained by ¹H NMR online experiments. In addition, a stereoselective reduction of a dimer analogue gave a natural product in high both yield and diastereoselectivity. The nucleophilic site of the azalactones is exploited in Pd catalyzed α- arylation carbonylation reactions, using the two-chamber system, followed by their opening, thereby obtaining protected α,α -disubstituted amino acids. The mechanism of the reaction is proposed based on control reactions. The same amino acids could also be synthesized with ¹³C-labeled CO. These coumpounds were applied in chemosselective reactions, such as krapcho decarboxylation reaction, chemosselective reduction, and synthesis of heterocycles such as oxazolones and pyrazolones.

<p dir="ltr">Zeolites are microporous crystalline aluminosilicates that are widely used as catalysts for upgrading hydrocarbons and oxygenates to higher value chemicals and fuels. The substitution of tetrahedral Si⁴⁺ with Al³⁺ in a charge-neutral silica framework ([SiO_4/2]) generates anionic centers ([AlO_4/2]^-), which charge-compensate Brønsted acid protons (H⁺) that serve as active sites for catalysis. Brønsted acid sites in aluminosilicates of diverse topologies have similar acid strength, but can be located within varying intracrystalline (or internal) microporous environments (0.4‒2 nm diameter) or at extracrystalline (or external) surfaces and mesoporous environments (>2 nm diameter); yet, catalytic diversity exists, <i>even</i> for a fixed zeolite framework topology, because micropores impose constraints on molecular access to and from intracrystalline active sites and provide van der Waals contacts that influence the stabilities of reactive intermediates and transition states. Tailoring the material properties of a given zeolite framework for targeted catalytic applications requires strategies to design both the bulk crystallite properties (e.g., morphology, active site density) that influence intracrystalline diffusion and the secondary environments that surround active sites and influence intrinsic kinetics, and further necessitates molecular-level insights to elucidate the influences of bulk and active site properties on catalysis. In this work, we provide synthetic and post-synthetic strategies to respectively tune active site environments within varying micropore voids and at external surfaces of zeolites, and develop gas-phase toluene methylation and liquid-phase mesitylene benzylation as probe reactions to quantify the catalytic consequences of active site environments on aromatic alkylation catalysis.</p><p dir="ltr">The MFI framework (orthorhombic phase) consists of 12 crystallographic distinct tetrahedral-sites and 26 unique framework oxygen atoms located around channels (~0.55 nm diameter) or channel intersections (~0.70 nm diameter). The synthesis of MFI zeolites using the conventional tetra-<i>n</i>-propylammonium (TPA⁺) organic structure directing agent (OSDA) is known to place framework Al and their attendant H⁺ sites within the larger intersection environments, because electrostatic interactions are favorable between such locations of [AlO_4/2]^- and the quaternary N⁺ center in TPA⁺ that becomes positioned rigidly within channel intersections during crystallization. The methylation of toluene by dimethyl ether (DME; 403 K) on MFI-TPA zeolites of fixed active site densities (~2 Al per unit cell) result in <i>ortho</i>-xylene (<i>o</i>-X; ~65%) as the major product over <i>para</i>-xylene (<i>p</i>-X; ~27%) and <i>meta</i>-xylene (<i>m</i>-X; ~8%). In contrast, toluene methylation on MFI zeolites (~2 Al per unit cell) synthesized using non-conventional OSDAs, such as ethylenediamine (EDA) or 1,4-diazabicyclo[2.2.2]octane (DABCO), predominantly forms <i>p</i>-X (~75%) over <i>o</i>-X (~23%) and <i>m</i>-X (~2%). Within the subsets of MFI-TPA and MFI-EDA/DABCO zeolites, measured xylene formation rates and isomer selectivities are independent of crystallite sizes (0.1‒13 µm), toluene conversions (0.02‒2.0%) and external H⁺ content (up to 9% external H⁺ per total Al), indicating negligible effects of diffusion-enhanced secondary xylene isomerization reactions at intracrystalline or extracrystalline domains. The invariance of xylene isomer selectivity with reactant pressures (0.2‒9 kPa toluene, 25‒66 kPa DME) or methylating agent (1‒4 kPa methanol) indicate that differences in reactivity of toluene to form each xylene isomer reflects differences in the stabilities of their respective kinetically relevant transition states that share the same reactive intermediate. Measured xylene isomer formation rate constants and rate constant ratios, obtained from mechanism-derived rate expressions and interpreted using transition state theory formalisms, are used alongside density functional theory (DFT) calculations to reveal that intersection void environments (~0.70 nm diameter) similarly stabilize all three xylene transition states over unconfined surfaces (>2 nm diameter) without altering the established aromatic substitution patterns, while channel void environments (~0.55 nm diameter) preferentially destabilize bulkier <i>o</i>-X and <i>m</i>-X transition states thereby resulting in high intrinsic <i>p</i>-X selectivity. DFT calculations reveal that the ability of protonated DABCO complexes to reorient within MFI intersections and participate in additional hydrogen-bonding interactions with anionic Al centers during synthesis, facilitates the placement of Al in smaller channel environments that are less favored by TPA⁺. These molecular-level details, enabled by combining synthesis, characterization, kinetics and DFT, establish a mechanistic link between OSDA structure, active site placement and transition state stability, and provide active site design strategies orthogonal to crystallite design approaches that rely on complex reaction-diffusion phenomena.</p><p dir="ltr">For various reactions including toluene methylation at higher reaction temperatures (573‒773 K) and toluene conversions (>10%), extracrystalline H⁺ sites in MFI zeolites are reported to influence reactivity, selectivity, and deactivation behavior during catalysis in undesired ways. Post-synthetic chemical treatments to passivate external H⁺ sites on MFI zeolites result in unintended (but not always undesirable) changes to bulk structural properties and Al and H⁺ contents. The number of extracrystalline H⁺ sites is difficult to quantify using conventional spectroscopic or titrimetric methods, especially when present in dilute amounts on samples whose surfaces have been passivated. The systematic treatment of MFI zeolites (2.4, 5.7 and 7.1 Al per unit cell) using ammonium hexafluorosilicate (AHFS) at varying treatment duration times, AHFS concentrations and number of successive treatments resulted in MFI zeolites that retain their bulk structural properties and total Al and H⁺ contents, except for one parent MFI sample containing a significant amount of non-framework Al species. The benzylation of mesitylene by dibenzyl ether (363 K) occurs exclusively at external H⁺ sites because the bulky 1,3,5-trimethyl-2-benzylbenzene product is sterically prevented from forming at intracrystalline H⁺ sites. The intrinsic zero-order rate constant (per external H⁺) for mesitylene benzylation is extracted from rate measurements (per total Al) on a suite of untreated MFI samples with known amounts of external H⁺ sites (1‒15% external H⁺ per total Al) quantified using bulky 2,6-di-<i>tert</i>-butylpyridine base titrants. Measured zero-order rate constants on AHFS-treated MFI zeolites are used to quantify the extent to which AHFS treatments passivate external H⁺ sites, revealing efficacies that depend on the specific treatment conditions and the parent sample used. The developed kinetic methods demonstrate the utility of catalytic probes, when compared to stoichiometric probes based on spectroscopic or titration methods, in amplifying and quantifying dilute concentrations of external H⁺ sites on zeolites. The methods enable comparisons of the efficacy of various post-synthetic passivation strategies and permit rigorous assessments of the influence of external H⁺ during acid catalysis.</p><p dir="ltr">Overall, this work provides (post-)synthetic strategies to tune active site environments within intracrystalline micropores or at extracrystalline surfaces and develops quantitative kinetic probes that enable a molecular-level understanding of catalytic consequences of active site environments on aromatic alkylation reactions. Taken together, the methodology and findings of this study have broader implications in zeolite catalyst design for selectively upgrading traditional fossil feedstocks (crude oil and shale gas) and emerging feedstocks (biomass and waste plastics).</p>