Efficient and accurate sensing of various parameters is needed for numerous applications. In this regard, different categories of sensors play a significant role and different applications require diverse sensing mechanisms owing to the operating conditions and field constraints. Among the several sensor methodologies available, optical fiber sensors have found significant attention, because of their advantages such as negligible foot print, small mass, immunity to Electromagnetic Interference, etc. In the category of optical fiber sensors, Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) sensors have found importance in many fields such as health monitoring of civil structures, environmental monitoring involving gas & humidity sensing, monitoring parameters like pressure, tilt, displacement, etc. In the recent times, FBGs have found applications in biomedical, biomechanical and biosensing fields. A FBG is a periodic change of the refractive index of the core of a single mode optical fiber along its longitudinal axis. The periodic modulation in the index of refraction is obtained by exposing a photosensitive germanium-doped silica fiber to an intense UV laser beam. FBGs, in the basic form, can sense strain and temperature. However, in recent years, several newer sensing applications of FBGs have been demonstrated. Some of the main features of the FBG sensor which qualify them for diverse sensing applications are high sensitivity, large operational bandwidth, multiplexing & multi modal sensing capability, etc. In this thesis work, FBG sensor based devices have been developed for newer applications in bio-medical fields for the measurement of force, flow and temperature. Particularly, novel transduction methodologies have been proposed, in order to convert the measurand parameter into a secondary parameter that can be sensed by the FBG sensor. The evaluation of the force required for a spinal needle to penetrate various tissue layers from skin to the epidural space is vital. In this work, a novel technique for dynamic monitoring of force experienced by a spinal needle during lumbar puncture using Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) sensor has been developed. The Fiber Bragg Grating Force Device (FBGFD) developed, measures the force on the spinal needle due to varied resistance offered by different tissue layers during its traversal. The effect of gauge of the spinal needle used for the lumbar puncture procedure affects the force required for its insertion into the tissue. The FBGFD developed, has been further utilized for a comparative study of the force required for lumbar puncture of various tissue layers with spinal needle of different gauges. The results obtained may serve as a guideline for selection of suitable gauge spinal needle during lumbar puncture minimizing post puncture side effects on patients. The pulmonary function test carried out using a spirometer, provides vital information about the functional status of the respiratory system of the subject. A Fiber Bragg Grating Spirometer (FBGS) has been developed which has the ability to convert the rate of air flow into a shift in wavelength that can be acquired by the FBG sensor. The FBGS can dynamically acquire the complete breathing sequence comprising of the inhalation phase, pause phase and exhalation phase in terms of the air flow rate along with the time duration of each phase. Methods are adopted to analyse and determine important pulmonary parameters using FBGS and compare these parameters with those obtained with a commercially available hospital grade pneumotachograph spirometer. Thermal imaging is one of the emerging non-invasive neuro-imaging techniques which can potentially indicate the boundaries of a brain tumor. The variation in tissue surface temperature is indicative of a tumor existence. In this work a FBG temperature sensor (FBGTS) has been developed for thermography of a simulated tissue using Agar material. The temperature of the embedded heater which mimics a brain tumor along with the surface temperature of the tissue model, is acquired using FBGTSs simultaneously. Further, the surface temperatures are studied for varying heater temperatures as well as varying positions of the heater in the simulated tissue model. To conclude, FBG based devices have been developed in this work, for applications in biomedical domain, with appropriate transduction methodologies for sensing different parameters such as force, flow and temperature.

Doctorat en sciences appliquées / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

[ES] La fibra óptica ha supuesto una gran revolución en el mundo de las telecomunicaciones debido a su alta capacidad de transmisión y sus bajas pérdidas. Hoy en día no sería posible transportar la cantidad de tráfico que se genera en internet si no fuera por sis- temas de comunicaciones basados en fibras ópticas. Sin embargo, el número de dispo- sitivos conectados a internet es cada vez mayor, por lo que la capacidad de la fibra óptica estándar de un solo núcleo se puede ver limitada en un futuro no muy lejano. Una forma de aumentar dicha capacidad es utilizar fibras ópticas con varios núcleos. Actualmente existe un gran interés sobre la investigación en este tipo de fibras para aplicaciones de telecomunicaciones, por lo que no es difícil encontrar fibras multinú- cleo comerciales. Aunque el uso más común de la fibra óptica es para telecomunicaciones, también se puede utilizar como sensor. Uno de los métodos más comunes para la implementa- ción de sensores es la inscripción de redes de difracción en fibras ópticas de un solo núcleo. Sin embargo, la inscripción de redes de dirección en fibras de múltiples núcleos abre nuevas líneas de investigación para el desarrollo de sensores avanzados. En esta tesis se ha estudiado distintos tipos de redes de difracción inscritas en una fibra de siete núcleos para su aplicación en la implementación de sensores. En primer lugar, se describe el sistema de fabricación que permite inscribir distintos tipos de redes de difracción en la fibra multinúcleo de forma selectiva, es decir, permite seleccionar en que núcleos se va a inscribir la red. Mediante este sistema se han inscrito redes de periodo largo y posteriormente se han caracterizado como sensor de deformación, tor- sión y curvatura. Después, se han inscrito redes de Bragg inclinadas para aumentar de forma intencionada la diafonía entre los núcleos de la fibra mediante el acoplo de luz entre ellos. Además, se ha demostrado experimentalmente que esta diafonía es sensible a la deformación de la fibra, a la curvatura, a la temperatura y al índice de refracción que rodea la fibra. Por otro lado, se ha demostrado que las redes de Bragg inscritas en fibras multinúcleo se pueden utilizar para implementar sensores de curvatura capaces de operar en entornos radioactivos. Finalmente se han fabricado redes de Bragg rege- neradas capaces de operar a altas temperaturas, estas redes se han caracterizado como sensor de temperatura, deformación y curvatura. / [CAT] La fibra òptica ha suposat una gran revolució en el món de les telecomunicacions a causa de la seua alta capacitat de transmissió i les seues baixes pèrdues. Hui en dia no seria possible transportar la quantitat d'informació que es genera en internet si no fos pels sistemes de comunicacions basats en fibres òptiques. No obstant això, el nombre de dispositius connectats a internet es cada vegada més gran, per la qual cosa la capacitat de la fibra òptica estàndard d'un sol nucli es pot veure limitada en un futur no gaire llunyà. Una manera d'augmentar aquesta capacitat es utilitzar fibres òptiques amb diversos nuclis. Actualment existeix un gran interès sobre la investigació en aquesta mena de fibres per a aplicacions de telecomunicacions, per la qual cosa no es difícil trobar fibres de múltiples nuclis comercials. Encara que l'ús mes comú de la fibra òptica es per a telecomunicacions, també es pot utilitzar com a sensor. Un dels mètodes més comuns per a la implementació de sensors es la inscripció de xarxes de difracció en fibres òptiques d'un sol nucli. No obstant això, la inscripció de xarxes de difracció en fibres de múltiples nuclis obri noves línies d'investigació per al desenvolupament de sensors més complexos. En aquesta tesi s'ha estudiat diferents tipus de xarxes de difracció inscrites en una fibra de set nuclis per a la seua aplicació en la implementació de sensors en fibra òptica. En primer lloc, es descriu el sistema de fabricació de xarxes de difracció que permet inscriure diferents tipus de xarxes de difracció en la fibra de múltiples nuclis de manera selectiva, es a dir, permet seleccionar en que nuclis s'inscriurà la xarxa. Mitjançant aquest sistema s'han inscrit xarxes de període llarg i posteriorment s'han caracteritzat com a sensor de deformació, torsió i curvatura. Després, s'han inscrit xarxes de Bragg inclinades per a augmentar de manera intencionada la diafonia entre els nuclis de la fibra mitjançant l'acoblament de llum entre ells. A més d'això, s'ha demostrat experimentalment que aquesta diafonia es sensible a la deformació de la fibra, a la curvatura, a la temperatura i a l'índex de refracció que envolta la fibra. D'altra banda, s'ha demostrat que les xarxes de Bragg inscrites en fibres múltiples nuclis es poden utilitzar per a implementar sensors de curvatura que poden operar en entorns radioactius. Finalment s'han fabricat xarxes de Bragg regenerades que suporten altes temperatures, aquestes xarxes s'han caracteritzat com a sensor de temperatura, deformació i curvatura. / [EN] Optical fiber has been a great revolution in the world of telecommunications due to its high transmission capacity and low attenuation. Today it would not be possible to transport the amount of traffic that is generated on the Internet without communication systems based on optical fibers. However, the number of devices connected to the Internet is increasing, so the capacity of standard single-core fiber optics may be limited so far in the future. One way to increase this capacity is to use multi-core optical fibers. Nowadays is a great interest in research in this type of fibers for telecommunications applications, so it is not difficult to find commercial multicore fibers. Although the most common use of fiber optics is for telecommunications, it can also be used as a sensor. One of the most common methods for sensor implementation is the inscription of diffraction gratings on single-core optical fibers. However, the enrollment of steering networks in multi-core fibers opens new lines of research for the development of advanced sensors. In this thesis, different types of diffraction gratings inscribed in a seven-core fiber have been studied for their application in the implementation of sensors. In the first place, the diffraction grating manufacturing system is described that allows to inscribe different types of diffraction gratings in the multicore fiber selectively, that is, it allows to select in which cores the grating is going to be inscribed. By means of this system, long-period networks have been inscribed and subsequently they have been characterized as a deformation, torsion, and curvature sensor. Then, slanted Bragg gratings have been inscribed to intentionally increase the crosstalk between the fiber cores by coupling light between them. Furthermore, this crosstalk has been experimentally shown to be sensitive to fiber deformation, curvature, temperature, and the index of refraction surrounding the fiber. On the other hand, it has been shown that Bragg networks inscribed in multicore fibers can be used to implement curvature sensors capable of operating in radioactive environments. Finally, regenerated Bragg nets capable of operating at high temperatures have been manufactured. These nets have been characterized as a temperature, deformation, and curvature sensor. / Agradezco a la Universitat Politècnica de València la beca FPI (PAID-01-18) que me fue concedida para realizar está tesis. / Madrigal Madrigal, J. (2022). Diseño, fabricación y caracterización de sensores basados en fibras ópticas de múltiples núcleos [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/180806 / TESIS

Several sensor technologies have been developed and experimented over the last few decades to cater various needs of medical diagnostics. Among these, fiber optic sensors, in particular, Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) based sensors have attracted considerable attention due to their inherent advantages such electrical passiveness, immunity to Electro Magnetic Interference (EMI), chemical inertness, etc. The present research work focuses on design, development and validation of FBG sensor based devices for measurement of certain healthcare parameters in the context of foot function/gait cycle, cardiac and breathing activity, nostril dominance, hand grip/wrist angle force function, etc. The experimental work presented here emphasizes on the effectiveness and competitiveness of the FBG devices developed, in comparison with standard tools such as Accelerometer, Load cell, Electronic Stethoscope, Electromyogram and Dynamometer. In the field of human balance, stability and geriatrics, two independent FBG devices namely, Fiber Bragg Grating based Stability Assessment Device (FBGSAD) and Optical Sensor Ground Reaction Force measurement Platform (OSGRFP) have been designed, developed and experimented for postural stability assessment and gait analysis respectively. The result of these studies have significant implications in understanding of the mechanism of plantar strain distribution, identifying issues in gait cycles, detecting foot function discrepancies, identifying individuals who are susceptible to falls and to qualify subjects for balance and stability. In the field of ergonomic assessment, Fiber Braggs Grating based Hand Grip Device (FBGHGD) is designed and developed for the measurement of hand grip force which helps in the understanding of several important biomechanical aspects such as neuromuscular system function, overall upper-limb strength, vertebral fracture, skeletal muscle function, prediction of disability, incapacity, mortality and bone mass density (forearm, skeletal sites, spine, hip etc.). Further as an extension of this work, the FBGHGD is used for measurement of force generated by the wrist in different positions of the flexion and extension which relates to the wrist muscle activity and its enactment. In the field of cardiac activity monitoring, a novel, in-vivo, non-invasive and portable device named Fiber Bragg Grating based Heart Beat Device (FBGHBD) is developed for the simultaneous measurement of respiratory and cardiac activities. The work involves designing FBGHBD, validating its performance against traditional diagnostic systems like electronic stethoscope, exploration of its clinical relevance and the usage of FBGHBD in studies involving normal persons and patients with myocardial infarction. The unique design of FBGHBD provides critical information such as nascent morphology of cardiac and breathing activity, heart rate variability, heart beat rhythm, etc., which can assist in early clinical diagnosis of many conditions associated to heart and lung malfunctioning. Further, the scope of this work extends towards evaluating several signal processing algorithms and demonstrating a suitable signal processing architecture for real-time extraction of heart beat and respiratory rates along with its nascent morphologies for critical health care application. In the area of breath monitoring, a Nostril Pressure and Temperature Device (NPTD) is designed and developed which aims at simultaneous, accurate and real-time measurement of nostril air flow pressure and temperature to aid in clinical diagnosis of nasal dysfunction and associated nose disorders. The results of NPTD can offer certain vital features like breathing pattern, respiratory rate, changes in individual nostril temperature/pressure, nostrils dominance, body core temperature etc., which can assist in early clinical diagnosis of breathing problems associated with heart, brain and lung malfunctioning. Since the research work in this thesis involve experiments engaging human subjects, necessary approvals from the ethical committee is obtained before the experiments and required ethical procedures are followed during all the experimental trials.

Die vorliegende Arbeit beschreibt die Entwicklung eines Drucksensorkatheters auf Basis von Faser-Bragg-Gittern. Dazu werden der medizinische Hintergrund aus technischer Sicht strukturiert dargelegt und bereits verfügbare Messmethoden für Manometrieuntersuchungen erörtert. Der Stand der Technik bei Faser-Bragg-Gitter basierten Sensoren und deren Auswertegeräten wird im Zusammenhang mit den aus dem medizinischen Hintergrund und dem Vergleich mit den anderen Messmethoden erwachsenden Anforderungen dargestellt. Die Entwicklung eines zweistufigen für die Herstellung mittels Koextrusion geeigneten Mantels für die optischen Fasern wird beschrieben. Mehrere Funktionsmuster für einen Drucksensorkatheter werden experimentell charakterisiert und die Ergebnisse hinsichtlich der Medizineignung bewertet.:Formelzeichen- und Abkürzungsverzeichnis 8 Vorwort 11 1 Einleitung 12 1.1 Motivation 12 1.2 Funktionsprinzip 14 1.3 Ziel und Struktur der Arbeit 15 2 Medizinischer Hintergrund 17 2.1 Anatomie des Nahrungstransports zum Magen 17 2.1.1 Anatomie des Pharynx 17 2.1.2 Anatomie des Ösophagus 18 2.1.3 Anatomie des Magens 19 2.2 Physiologie des Schluckens 19 2.2.1 Physiologie des Pharynx 21 2.2.2 Physiologie des oberen Ösophagus-Sphinkters (OÖS) 21 2.2.3 Physiologie des tubulären Ösophagus 22 2.2.4 Physiologie des unteren Ösophagus-Sphinkters (UÖS) 22 2.3 Anatomie des Rektums 23 2.4 Physiologie des Rektums 24 2.5 Manometrie als Diagnosewerkzeug in Hohlorganen 24 2.5.1 Manometrie des Ösophagus 24 2.5.2 Manometrie des Rektums 26 2.5.3 Sphinkter Oddi-Manometrie (SOM) 27 2.6 Manometriemethoden 29 2.6.1 Perfusionsmanometrie 30 2.6.2 Transducer Manometrie 31 2.6.3 Durchzugsmanometrie 32 2.6.4 Manometrie mit Luftkathetern 32 2.6.5 Manometrie mit Faser-Bragg-Gittern 33 2.7 Limitierungen der Manometrie 33 2.8 High-Resolution Manometry (HRM) 34 2.9 Hygiene 36 2.10 Bewertungen und Schlussfolgerungen 37 3 Stand von Wissenschaft und Technik 40 3.1 Optische Fasern 40 3.2 Faser-Bragg-Gitter (FBG) 41 3.2.1 Einschreibeverfahren 41 3.2.2 Eigenschaften von FBGs 43 3.2.3 Typen von FBGs 44 3.3 Faser-Bragg-Gitter Sensoren 46 3.3.1 Dehnungsempfindlichkeit 46 3.3.2 Temperaturempfindlichkeit 47 3.3.3 Druckempfindlichkeit 47 3.4 Sensorische Wirkung von Bragg-Gittern in Polymerfasern 48 3.5 Auswerteverfahren 49 3.5.1 Interrogatoren mit breitbandigen Lichtquellen 50 3.5.2 Interrogatoren mit abstimmbaren Laserlichtquellen 52 3.5.3 Bewertung der Anwendbarkeit für Drucksensorkatheter 53 3.5.4 Unterscheidung von Temperatur und Dehnung 55 3.6 Faser-Bragg-Gitter basierte Drucksensoren 57 4 Entwicklung eines Drucksensorkatheters auf Basis von Faser-Bragg-Gittern 59 4.1 Zusammenfassung der Anforderungen 59 4.2 Vorbetrachtungen 59 4.2.1 Was bedeutet Druck bei einem Katheter? 59 4.2.2 Verwendete Faser-Bragg-Gitter 60 4.2.3 Mechanische Eigenschaften der optischen Fasern 62 4.2.4 Auswahl und Materialparameter des Mantelmaterials 63 4.2.5 Bestmögliche Druckempfindlichkeit – fluidgefüllte Zelle 66 4.2.6 Druckempfindlichkeit einer Faser im dicken Kunststoffmantel 67 4.3 Entwurf 69 4.3.1 Mögliche im Extrusionsverfahren herstellbare Katheterquerschnitte 69 4.3.2 Simulation der Druckempfindlichkeit 70 4.3.3 Dehnungsempfindlichkeit 73 4.3.4 Biegesteifigkeit 74 4.3.5 Festlegung der geometrischen Parameter für Kathetermuster 76 4.4 Herstellung von Mustern 76 4.5 Simulierte Eigenschaften der hergestellten Muster 78 4.5.1 Druckempfindlichkeit 78 4.5.2 Dehnungsempfindlichkeit 80 4.6 Auswerteverfahren 82 4.6.1 Interrogator „Blue Fiber Box“ 82 4.6.2 Betrachtungen zum Aliasing 82 5 Charakterisierung der Kathetermuster 84 5.1 Querschnittsgeometrie 84 5.1.1 Durchmesser 84 5.1.2 Exzentrizität 85 5.2 Konstruktion eines Prüfstands für die Charakterisierung der Druckempfindlichkeit 86 5.2.1 Mechanischer Aufbau 86 5.2.2 Druckbeeinflussung der Katheter 87 5.3 Druckempfindlichkeit der Kathetermuster 90 5.4 Zugfestigkeit 95 5.5 Dehnungsempfindlichkeit 99 5.6 Biegesteifigkeit 100 5.7 Temperaturempfindlichkeit 101 6 Ergebnisbewertung 103 6.1 Vergleich der gemessenen und berechneten Parameter 103 6.2 Änderungsvorschlag 104 6.3 Ergebnisse im Kontext medizinischer Anforderungen 105 7 Zusammenfassung und Ausblick 107 A Optische Faser in einem dicken Kunststoffmantel unter hydrostatischem Druck 109 B Modellierung in ANSYS 110 C Simulierte Druckempfindlichkeit der Kathetermuster 112 D Messverfahren für die Exzentrizität 113 E Messunsicherheit bei der Messung einer Referenzdruckkennlinie 116 Literaturverzeichnis 117 Tabellenverzeichnis 127 Abbildungsverzeichnis 128 Thesen 132

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Les composants passifs électro-acoustiques sont des éléments critiques des architectures RF. Les plus représentés sont les filtres à ondes acoustiques de surface (SAW) ou de volume (BAW), qui permettent le filtrage RF (filtre d’antenne). Pour le filtrage de canal, les solutions SAW sont actuellement en place, bien que des travaux récents aient montré l’intérêt des résonateurs à ondes de Lamb pour ce type d’application. Ces derniers composants présentent l’avantage d’être compatibles avec une technologie de fabrication de filtres BAW réalisés sur membrane suspendue (FBAR), permettant une co-intégration des deux types de composants à moindre coût. Toutefois, le choix technologique de STMicroelectronics et du CEA-Leti s’est porté sur une technologie de résonateurs BAW réalisés sur miroir de Bragg (SMR). Le but de cette thèse est donc de démontrer la possibilité de réaliser des résonateurs reprenant le principe des résonateurs à ondes de Lamb, mais co-intégrables avec des BAW-SMR. Après une présentation de l’état des lieux des composants électromécaniques utilisés dans les architectures RF et des diverses propositions de dispositifs semblables présentes dans la littérature, nous abordons une étude théorique du principe de fonctionnement de ce type de composants, ce qui nous permet d’en cerner les caractéristiques : coefficientsde couplage électromécaniques proches de ceux des résonateurs à ondes de Lamb, mais fonctionnement à des fréquences proches de celles des résonateurs BAW. Nous présentons ensuite les méthodes de dimensionnement employées. Enfin, nous présentons un procédé de réalisation proche de celui des BAWSMR fabriqués au CEA-Leti, mais adapté à nos composants. A l’issue de caractérisations électriques, nous sommes en mesure de présenter les premiers composants de ce type fonctionnels, et une liste d’améliorations possibles. Ces travaux ont permis des publications dans quatre conférences dont trois internationales, un journal, un dépôt de brevet d’invention et deux publications internes au laboratoire commun IEMN-STMicroelectronics. / Passive acoustic devices are enabling elements for RF architectures. Aside from the well known surface acoustic wave (SAW) and bulk acoustic wave (BAW) filters used for RF filtering, Lamb wave devices have recently been seen as an alternative to SAW devices currently used also for intermediate frequency filtering. These resonators are compatible with a membrane-based BAW technology (FBAR) and could thus be co-integrated with them with no additional cost. However, STMicroelectronics and CEALeti have focused their developments around BAW resonators using a Bragg mirror for acoustic isolation (SMR). Therefore, the aim of this work is to demonstrate the possibility of fabricating resonators close to Lamb wave resonators, but technologically compatible with a BAW-SMR technology. After reviewing the applications of electromechanical resonators in RF architectures and the proposals for the kind of resonators we are investigating available in the literature, we start with a theoretical investigation of these devices. This enables us to determine basic characteristics of these resonators: electromechanical coupling factors close to Lamb wave devices, but operation at frequencies close to BAW resonators. Then, we describe the design of demonstrators. Finally, we describe a fabrication process, similar to BAW-SMR fabrication process, which has provided to date the first operating devices using this principle. Electrical characterizations show that the fabricated resonators are functional, and we discuss possible improvements.This work led to publications in four conferences, (three international conferences), a paper, a patent and two internal publications at IEMN-STMicroelectronics common laboratory.