Utifrån en problemställning formulerad av Trafikverkets skyltfond har produktutvecklingsföretaget Prodelox drivit ett projekt med syfte att testa kreativa idéer för att minska bromssträckan för personbilar i nödsituationer. Som en del i projektet har ett examensarbete genomförts vilket resulterat i denna rapport. Examensarbetet ämnar sammanställa en mängd idéer på alternativa metoder att bromsa bilar, för att sedan välja ut tre av dessa för praktiska tester. Idén med att korta bromssträckan grundar sig i trafiksäkerhetsarbetet i kombination med introduktionen av nya tekniska system som kan förutspå kollisioner. Om en kollision kan förutses är det av största intresse att kunna bromsa in bilen så mycket som möjligt innan detta sker för att minska skadorna och rädda liv. Ur ett förutsättningslöst perspektiv har kreativa idéer tagits fram. Rapporten tar dessutom upp och sammanfattar friktionsteorier och fordonsdynamiska aspekter att ta hänsyn till vid utvecklingsarbetet. Projektet följer en produktutvecklingsmetodik presenterad av Ulrich och Eppinger (2008) och omfattningen är utvecklingsfasens tidiga steg. Genom två iterationer utvecklas koncept genom framtagande av kravspecifikation, konceptgenerering, och konceptval. Idéer testas löpande genom fysiska såväl som virtuella prototyper under hela processen. Den första utvecklingsiterationen resulterar i 17 konceptidéer innefattande olika typer av bromsmetoder. Koncepten delas in i kategorierna ökad friktion, ökad normalkraft, spjärn mot asfalten, aerodynamik och magnetism. Tre koncept väljs ut och utvecklas vidare: Koncept Ankare, Gummiplatta och Avverkan. Utvecklingen av koncept Ankare resulterar i ett koncept där en infästning i asfalten sker i farten under bilen med hjälp av krutdrivna spikpistoler. Fästet förbinds med bilen med ett textilband kallat Tear Webbing. Det är två sydda remmar som producerar en konstant kraft då remmarna slits isär och sömmarna rivs upp. Bandet testas praktiskt och ger en bromseffekt på uppemot 1,5 g-krafter, medan de krutdrivna spikpistolerna inte kan testas i farten inom ramen för detta projekt. Koncept Gummiplatta bygger på att en stor gummiyta placerad under bilen trycks ner i marken och lyfter framvagnen på bilen. Olika gummibelägg testas med förhoppningen att hitta ett gummibelägg med goda friktionsegenskaper. Ökad area och optimerade materialegenskaper kan i teorin leda till bättre friktion. Konceptet testas på både vått och torrt väglag genom en konstruktion under testbilens framvagn. Fyra olika gummiprover jämförs med bilens vanliga bromsar. Endast ett gummi, naturgummi, presterar bättre än referensen i tester från 50 km/h, medan resten resulterar i längre bromssträcka. Vid tester från 100 km/h presterar samtliga gummiprover sämre än referensbromsningarna. Koncept Avverkan baseras på idén att en större kraft än friktionskraften kan fås ut om ett hårt material trycks ner i asfaltens yta och river upp densamma. Deformationerna av asfalten åstadkommer den bromsande kraften. I test av konceptet höll inte konstruktionen, men retardationen som utvecklades innan konstruktionen gav vika kom upp i 1,2 g-krafter, något som visar på att konceptet har kapacitet att korta bromssträckan. Som fortsättning på detta projekt föreslås flera vägar att gå. Koncepten Ankare och Avverkan visar på stor potential att korta bromssträckan och nya projekt med syfte att fortsatt utveckla och testa dessa koncept föreslås. Även andra projekt som ligger utanför syftet av denna rapport, så som en idé för att minska dubbdäcksanvändningen, föreslås för utredning i framtida studier. / At the request of the Swedish Transport Administration the product development company Prodelox has initiated a project aiming to test creative ideas on reducing the braking distance for passenger cars in emergency situations. As a part of this project a master thesis has been conducted resulting in this report. The thesis aims to compile ideas on alternative methods for braking cars, and thereafter choosing three of them for practical testing. In combination with introduction of new technical innovations that predict collisions, an alternative braking system that could brake more than standard brakes are of great interest. By reducing the braking distance deaths and serious injuries in traffic can be reduced. From this perspective ideas have been impartially generated. The report includes friction theory and vehicle dynamics to consider in the development. The project is following a product development process presented by Ulrich and Eppinger (2008) and focuses on the early stages of the process. In two iterations concepts are developed through the phases target specification, concept generation and concept selection. Ideas are concurrently tested through physical as well as virtual prototypes. The first development iteration resulted in 17 concepts including different kinds of braking methods. The concepts are divided into five categories; increased friction, increased normal load, grabbing of the asphalt, aerodynamics, and magnetism. Three concepts are chosen for further development; concept Anchor, Rubber plate, and Rip up. The development of concept Anchor results in a concept for which an attachment is made in the asphalt on the fly by use of cartridge actuated fastening machine. The attachment is connected to the car by a textile webbing, called Tear Webbing. It consists of two sewn straps that produce a constant force when torn apart. In practical tests, the concept generate a breaking effect of 1.5 g-forces, while the cartridge actuated fastening cannot be tested on the fly within this project. The development of concept Anchor results in a concept for which an attachment is made in the asphalt on the fly by use of cartridge actuated fastening machine. The attachment is connected to the car by a textile webbing, called Tear Webbing. It consists of two sewn straps that produce a constant force when torn apart. In practical tests, the concept generate a breaking effect of 1.5 g-forces, while the cartridge actuated fastening cannot be tested on the fly within this project. Concept Rip up is based on idea that a bigger force than the frictional force can be achieved by pressing a hard material into the surface of the asphalt road and tearing up the same. The deformations of the asphalt generate the braking force. While testing the concept the structure holding the horns broke, but the force achieved before time of collapse was corresponding to a deceleration of 1.2 g-forces. This shows that the concept has potential to reduce the braking distance. To conclude this project several new projects are suggested. The concepts Anchor and Rip up show great potential to reduce the braking distance and new projects aiming to further develop and test these concepts are recommended. Also other further studies outside the frame of this report are suggested, for example an idea on how to reduce the usage of studded tires.

In today’s fast moving world, automobiles are facing challenges in terms of having to survive road accidents, increasing traffic, bad road-conditions and high/express ways. Brake systems play a vital role in controlling the vehicle speed while avoiding road accidents. The conventional brake systems consist of basically an actuator, transmission and frictional parts. This system is difficult for manipulated control by the driver during emergency and panic braking situations. In particular road and environmental conditions, it requires certain skill to have safe and effective brake control, which is always not possible from all drivers. Wheel locking is a predominant phenomenon during panic braking and this will cause vehicle skidding resulting in injuries and road accidents. In the case of a two-wheeler, being a single-track vehicle, skidding is one of the major causes for fatal road accidents due to loss in lateral balance. As the road safety regulations are becoming more stringent, the anti-lock brake systems (ABS) will replace the conventional brake systems in all road vehicles to avoid accidents and to improve vehicle safety. Early ABS systems, developed in the last 100-years, use intermittent and cyclic brake pressure control by sensing the wheel speed or wheel-slip as one of the major control inputs. Regulating the brake pressure with a preset threshold value is another method. These ABS systems have used electronics, or hydraulics or pure mechanical control. However, such ABS are not widely used in two-wheelers and other low cost vehicles till now, because of several limitations identified as follows: High cost, power supply needed for its operation in the case of intermittent and cyclic brake control, susceptibility to failure in the electronics system, interference from RF signals (from cell-phones for example), uneasiness to drivers from pedal pulsations with pedal noise, heavier weight, increased vehicle vibrations and failure modes of wheels due to torsional vibrations. The present research work is carried out to develop a new mechanical ABS concept, which will address most of the above problems. During braking, the change in rider-input force will change wheel reactions. This change is made proportional to the change in rider input force only upto wheel locking. Such a principle is used to develop the new mechanical ABS. The new concept regulates the output force from the ABS, by sensing the dynamic wheel reactions with increase in rider-response. The ABS output force is regulated by one of the following ways: (a) Slipping-down the lever-ratio or (b) preventing the excessive brake input force. Based on the parameters like less number of parts, least weight, simplicity, reliability, efficiency, durability, time-response, etc., the second method (of preventing the excessive brake input force) has been chosen. Further a new concept of ABS interconnecting system is proposed for usage between the front and rear wheels of the vehicle. This interconnecting system will ensure that the two mechanical ABS systems function at any kind of braking-balance between the front and rear applications. An analytical vehicle model has been developed with several input parameters like mass, geometry, inertia, aerodynamic properties, frictions of road and bearing-supports, road gradients, etc. From this analytical model, the dynamic wheel reactions and limiting adhesion of each tyre for various braking conditions are determined and the results are used to design the mechanical ABS. The same analytical model is used to predict the brake performance like stopping distance, vehicle deceleration and the vehicle speed variation for ideal braking conditions. The new ABS is modelled in Pro-E using the inputs from the analytical model. To evaluate the concept, a functional proto-type is built and fitted on a motorcycle. The ABS is evaluated for its functionality and performance at different road (level surface, up-gradients and down gradients) and environmental conditions (dry and wet road conditions). Using the VBOX II, proximate sensors and load-cells fitted on the vehicle, the vehicle stopping distance, wheel slip and pedal force are measured. The results show that wheel locking does not occur under panic driving conditions, which is the primary objective. In addition, the results show a good agreement with the predicted stopping distance and vehicle deceleration from the analytical model. As there is good scope for this new mechanical ABS for use in two-wheelers and other low cost vehicles, further research is needed to make this system work in curvilinear motion & banked surfaces.

With the advent of autonomous driving, concepts like road trains or platoons are becoming more popular. In these arrangements, vehicles travel at separations of only 5 to 10m between them. These short inter-vehicle distances allow compacting vehicle flows resulting in increased throughput on highways. In addition, there are also fuel/energy savings as the magnitude of aerodynamic resistance acting on vehicles is reduced. These benefits increase when reducing inter-vehicle separations to below 5m. However, it becomes extremely difficult to guarantee safety, especially, when braking in an emergency. The longitudinal and lateral control systems developed so far aim to achieve string stability in the cruise scenario, i.e., to prevent that small variations at the lead magnify towards the trail. Unfortunately, this has no relevance during emergency braking, since control systems incur saturation, i.e., the condition where computed output brake forces exceed those that can be applied by actuators. This is because all vehicles have to apply their maximum brake forces in order to minimize the stopping distance of the platoon and reach a complete standstill. As a result, emergency braking requires special attention and needs to be designed and verified independent of the cruise scenario. Braking in an emergency is mainly characterized by the problem of heterogeneous deceleration capabilities of vehicles, e.g., due to their type and/or loading conditions. As a result, a deceleration rate possible by one vehicle may not be achievable by its immediately leading or following vehicles. Not addressing this heterogeneity leads to inter-vehicle collisions. Moreover, transitions in the road profile increase the complexity of such brake maneuvers. Particularly, when there is a transition from a flat road to a steep downhill, an already saturated brake controller cannot counteract the effect of the downhill slope. Hence, its deceleration magnitude will be reduced, potentially leading to intra-platoon crashes that would otherwise not occur on a flat road. In this work, we first analyze the problem of emergency braking in platoons operating at inter-vehicle separations below 5m and under idealized conditions (i.e., flat road, instantaneous deceleration, etc.). For this case, we propose a cyber-physical approach based on exploiting space buffers that are present in the separations between vehicles, and compare it with straightforward schemes (such as Least Platoon Length and Least Stopping Distance) in terms of achieved aerodynamic benefits, overall platoon length, and stopping distance. We then consider realistic conditions (in particular, changing road profiles as mentioned before) and investigate how to design a brake-by-wire controller present at each vehicle that accounts for this. We further extend our proposed cyber-physical approach by adding cooperative behavior. In particular, if an individual vehicle is unable to track its assigned deceleration, it coordinates with all others to avoid inter-vehicle collisions, for which we propose a vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communication strategy. Finally, we present a detailed evaluation of the proposed cyber-physical approach based on high-fidelity vehicle models in Matlab/Simulink. Even though more work is needed towards a real-life implementation, our simulation results demonstrate benefits by the proposed approach and, especially, its feasibility.

Freeway merging VISSIM calibration techniques were developed for the analysis of ramp metering in Georgia. An analysis of VISSIM’s advanced merging and cooperative lane change settings was undertaken to determine their effects on merging behavior. Another analysis was performed to determine the effects of the safety reduction factor and the maximum deceleration for cooperative braking parameter on the simulated merging behavior. Results indicated that having both the advanced merging and cooperative lane change setting active produced the best results and that the safety reduction factor had more influence on the merging behavior than the maximum deceleration for cooperative braking parameter. Results also indicated that the on-ramp experienced unrealistic congestion when on-ramp traffic was unable to immediately find an acceptable gap when entering the acceleration lane. These vehicles would form a queue at the end of the acceleration lane and then be unable to merge into the freeway lane due to the speed differential between the freeway and the queued ramp traffic. An Incremental Desired Speed algorithm was developed to maintain an acceptable speed differential between the merging traffic and the freeway traffic. The Incremental Desired Speed algorithm resulted in a smoother merging behavior. Lastly, a ramp meter was introduced and an increase in both the freeway throughput and overall speeds was found. Implications of these findings on the future research is discussed.

Magnetic properties of Nb/Ni superconducting (SC) / ferromagnetic (FM) multilayers exhibit interesting properties near and below SC transition. A complex Field (H) – Temperature (T) phase boundary is observed in perpendicular and parallel orientation of ML with respect to DC field. We address the critical need to develop methods to make reliable magnetic measurements on SC thin films and ML, in spite of their extreme shape anisotropy and the strong diamagnetic response of the SC state. Abrupt, highly reproducible “switching” of the SC state magnetization near the normal-state FM coercive fields has been observed in Nb/Ni ML. The SC penetration depth l(Nb) > the SC coherence length xo(Nb) » 40 nm >> the FM layer thickness y(Ni) = 5 nm, abrupt magnetic reversals might be driven by strong supercurrent densities (J x M torques) that have the potential to flow into the Ni layers. Alternatively, sharp magnetization anomalies also can result from strong flux pinning by the periodic layered structure of ML, including “lock-in” of quantized flux lines (FL) parallel to the ML plane. Strong confinement of the supercurrents within ML planes might also lead to various phase transitions of the FL lattice (FLL) composed of one-dimensional chains and other unusual structures. Possible mechanisms for the switching anomalies must be evaluated while considering other experimental properties of Nb(x)/Ni(y) ML: 1) The upper critical magnetic field Hc2(T) exhibits a highly unusual anisotropy where the SC transition temperature Tc (H®0) for DC field H ^ ML plane exceeds the value for H || ML by ~ 0.5 K. 2) Nb/Ni ML samples do not consistently exhibit magnetic signatures for the onset of superconductivity, depending on the details of the sample mounting procedure and the AC or DC method used in SQUID magnetometry experiments. 3) Unusual “wiggles” or oscillations of order 10-30 mK were observed in Hc2(T) in AC SQUID experiments with H || ML and can be even larger (~0.16 K), depending upon the AC drive amplitude ho and frequency f .

In HEV and EV, higher fuel economy is achieved by operating the ICE and electric motor in the most efficient region and by using regenerative braking. Such a braking system converts, transfers, stores and reuses kinetic energy which would otherwise be dissipated as heat through friction brakes to the environment. This research investigates the control of braking for a mixed-mode braking system in a these vehicles based on the proportion of braking energy that can be stored. Achieving mixed-mode braking requires the ‘blending’ of the two systems (regenerative and friction), and in brake blending, the electric motor/generator (M/G) and the hydraulic actuation pressure are controlled together to meet the driver’s braking demand. The research presented here has established a new robust dynamic modelling procedure for the design of combined regenerative and hydraulic braking systems. Direct torque control and pressure control were selected as the control criteria in both brakes. Two simulation models have been developed in Matlab/Simulink to generate analysis the performance of the control strategy in the blended braking system. Integration of the regenerative braking system with ABS has also been completed, based on two conditions, with and without the deactivation of the regenerative braking. Verification of the models is presented, based on experimental work on two EVs manufactured by TATA Motors; the ACE light commercial vehicle and the VISTA small passenger car. It is concluded that braking demand and vehicle speed determine the operating point of the motor/generator and hence the regenerative braking ratio.

One of the benefits of electric vehicles (EVs) and hybrid vehicles (HVs) is their potential to recuperate braking energy. Regenerative braking (RB) will minimize duty levels on the brakes, giving advantages including extended brake rotor and friction material life and, more significantly, reduced brake mass and minimised brake pad wear. In this thesis, a mathematical analysis (MATLAB) has been used to analyse the accessibility of regenerative braking energy during a single-stop braking event. The results have indicated that a friction brake could be downsized while maintaining the same functional requirements of the vehicle braking in the standard brakes, including thermomechanical performance (heat transfer coefficient estimation, temperature distribution, cooling and stress deformation). This would allow lighter brakes to be designed and fitted with confidence in a normal passenger car alongside a hybrid electric drive. An approach has been established and a lightweight brake disc design analysed FEA and experimentally verified is presented in this research. Thermal performance was a key factor which was studied using the 3D model in FEA simulations. Ultimately, a design approach for lightweight brake discs suitable for use in any car-sized hybrid vehicle has been developed and tested. The results from experiments on a prototype lightweight brake disc were shown to illustrate the effects of RBS/friction combination in terms of weight reduction. The design requirement, including reducing the thickness, would affect the temperature distribution and increase stress at the critical area. Based on the relationship obtained between rotor weight, thickness and each performance requirement, criteria have been established for designing lightweight brake discs in a vehicle with regenerative braking.

The fundamental theories of heat generation and transfer at the friction interface of a brake assume either matching or not matching surface temperatures by having a varying or uniform heat partition ratio respectively. In the research presented the behaviour of heat partition has been investigated in a fundamental study based on experimental measurements of temperature and the associated modelling and simulation of heat transfer in a brake friction pair. For a disc brake, an important parameter that was identified from the literature study is the interface tribo-layer (ITL), which has been modelled as an equivalent thermal resistance value based on its thickness and thermal conductivity. The interface real contact area was also an important parameter in this investigation, and it has been found to affect heat partitioning by adding its own thermal resistance. A 2-dimensional (2D) coupled-temperature displacement Finite Element (FE) model is presented, based on which a novel relationship which characterises the total thermal resistance (or conductance) at the friction interface has been characterised based on the ITL thermal properties, the contact area, and the contact pressure at the interface. Using the model the effect of friction material wear on the total thermal resistance (or conductance) at the friction interface was predicted and a comparison of the Archard and Arrhenius wear laws in predicting the wear of a resin bonded composite friction material operating against a cast iron mating surface is presented. A 3-dimensional (3D) model is also presented. This model has represented a small scale disc brake test rig which has been used in parallel with the simulation for validation in a drag braking scenario. Two simulation conditions with different pad surface states were investigated, the first having a nominally flat surface, and the second an adjusted (worn) pad surface based on bedding-in data. The Arrhenius wear model was applied to significance of including wear on the total thermal resistance at the friction interface over a short brake application. A sensitivity analysis on the interface thermal conductance, the location of heat generation, and the magnitude of contact pressure has identified the importance of each factor in determining the total thermal resistance (or conductance) at the friction interface during any friction brake application. It is concluded that the heat partitioning is insensitive on the location of heat generation, and that the most sensitive parameter is the contact pressure.

Pour l’équipementier qui développe des roues et des freins d’aéronefs, le comportement thermique de l’équipement constitue un point de design majeur intervenant dans la conception. Cette discipline est aujourd’hui au centre des efforts de progression, car le concepteur est challengé sur la diminution de la masse du système. De ce fait, les limites en températures sont plus fréquemment atteintes, ce qu’il faut désormais anticiper dès l’appel d’offre pour éviter les itérations de conception. Cependant, les conditions dans lesquelles opère le système ainsi que son comportement thermique, sont mal connus et mal maîtrisés. Le caractère prédictif des simulations numériques faites pour dimensionner la structure, dépend directement de la précision du modèle et avec laquelle sont introduites, les conditions aux limites imposées en service à la structure.Aujourd’hui Safran ne dispose pas d’outil, ni de moyen suffisamment fiable pour prédire dès la phase de pré-dimensionnement, le comportement thermique de l’ensemble Roue & Frein. Il est connu que le design du frein et de la roue ont une influence réciproque sur la cinétique thermique de l’ensemble.Savoir prédire le comportement qualitatif du produit, en réponse aux sollicitations demandées par l’avionneur, permet de faire en amont des choix technologiques dont l’impact sur la thermique sera connu. Ainsi, la conception est dé-risquée d’éventuelles itérations de design pouvant retarder de plusieurs années la certification d’un avion.L’objet de cette thèse, est de proposer des solutions pour reproduire qualitativement la thermique Roue & Frein d’un avion, en prenant en compte des paramètres physiques associés aux solutions technologiques employées. Nous illustrons également que ces outils sont aussi un moyen de connaître les conditions dans lesquelles opère le système, lorsque l’on connaît à l’avance sa réponse en température en prenant le problème de manière inverse. / For the equipment manufacturer who develops aircraft wheels and brakes, the thermal behavior of the equipment refers to a major reference design point. This discipline is today at the center of concerns, because the designer is challenged on the system mass improvements. As a result, the temperature limits are more frequently reached, which must now be anticipated as early as possible.The pre-design phase should now also allow avoiding design iterations. However, the conditions under which the system operates and its thermal behavior, are poorly understood and poorly controlled. The predictive nature of the numerical simulations used to design the structure, depends directly on the model’s accuracy and on the in service boundary conditions imposed to the system.Today, Safran does not have any enough reliable tool or means to predict the thermal behavior of the Wheels & Brake assembly right from the pre-design phase. It is known that the design of the brake and the wheel have a reciprocal influence on the thermal kinetics of the system. Knowing how to predict the thermal behavior of the product, in response to stresses requested by the aircraft manufacturer, allows upstream technological choices whose impact on the thermal kinetics will be known. Thus, the design is disregarded of possible design iterations that could delay the aircraft certification by several years.The purpose of this thesis is to propose solutions to qualitatively reproduce the thermal behavior of an aircraft braking system, taking into account physical parameters associated with technological solutions. We also illustrate that these tools are also a way of knowing the conditions under which the system operates, when one knows in advance its temperature response by taking the problem in the opposite way.

L’objectif de cette thèse est de proposer de nouvelles solutions matériaux moins sensibles à la fissuration par fatigue thermique induite en frottement, première cause de remplacement des disques de frein de véhicule « poids lourd ». Les performances en freinage doivent être équivalentes à celles obtenues avec le couple de matériaux actuels : disque de frein en fonte à graphite lamellaire- garniture en matériau de friction composite à matrice semi-métallique. L’étude repose sur une approche multidisciplinaire des phénomènes et des couplages induits en freinage. Elle comporte quatre parties : la première partie expose les principaux enjeux industriels et scientifiques du freinage des véhicules « poids lourds » ; la seconde développe une approche modèle-expérience originale pour caractériser les sollicitations de freinage conduisant à la dégradation de disques de frein échelle 1 en fonte à graphite lamellaire ; enfin les nouvelles solutions matériaux considérées sont évaluées suivant une étude tribologique (troisième partie) et en cyclage thermique (quatrième partie), développée en laboratoire / This PhD thesis was carried out with the aim of developing new materials for truck brake discs, so as to increase disc lifespans. Premature failure is the major problem encountered in the operation. Braking performances of new materials should be equivalent to those obtained with the current material couple: lamellar grey cast iron brake disc and commercial semi-metallic brake lining material. To do this, the study is divided in four parts: Firstly, major industrial and scientific aspects in braking are identified in literature and with investigations on truck brake discs used on road. Next, a coupled numerical-experimental approach enable us to characterize thermomechanical loadings induced by braking and leading to damage mechanisms of the lamellar grey cast iron disc. Finally, two aspects of new materials solutions are investigated in laboratory: tribological behaviour and thermal cycling behaviour