The use of homogeneous organometallic catalysis for otherwise challenging chemical transformations is a concept that has gained significant interest in recent decades, providing access to a variety of useful chemical products. The catalytic reactivity of transition metals and non-reactive ancillary ligands that bind to the metal center has played an important role in such methods, with notable breakthroughs being Nobel Prize-winning reactions (palladium-catalyzed C-C cross-coupling, 2010). The research compiled in the thesis further develops the themes of ligand design and catalytic applications currently studied in the Stradiotto group. Key ideas throughout the thesis are to establish an understanding of the palladium/Mor-DalPhos catalyst system in ammonia arylation with respect to mechanism and substrate scope, and to expand the reactivity profile of the DalPhos ligand set to more challenging C-N and related cross-coupling processes. The first section describes an examination of the [Pd(cinnamyl)Cl] dimer/Mor-DalPhos catalyst system in C-N cross-coupling employing ammonia to better understand the catalyst formation process and to provide a guide for the development of precatalysts for otherwise challenging room-temperature ammonia monoarylations. Oxidative addition complex [(Mor-DalPhos)Pd(Ph)Cl] proved to be the optimal catalyst for arylation of ammonia at room temperature using aryl halides and tosylates. In the second section, ammonia cross-coupling was extended by applying it in the construction of indole frameworks, for the first time, which gave access to NH-indoles directly from ortho-alkynylbromoarenes. The Pd/JosiPhos was the superior catalyst system in comparison to Pd/Mor-DalPhos for this reaction and further stoichiometric studies revealed the reasons for this may be that the bulky arylalkyne ligand induces loss of ammonia from (Mor-DalPhos)Pd catalytic intermediates, and that catalyst inhibition by the alkyne substrate through irreversible metal binding is also a possible factor prior to the oxidative addition step. The reactivity profile of the DalPhos ligand set was successfully expanded in the third section of the thesis to palladium-catalyzed aminocarbonylation of aryl bromides using a pyridine-derived DalPhos variant (Pyr-DalPhos). Several different aryl and some heteroaryl bromides were accommodated in the coupling reaction with ammonia and carbon monoxide as reagents, providing aryl amide products in synthetically useful yields. The methodology described in the final thesis section demonstrated the use of Mor-DalPhos and [Pd(cinnamyl)Cl] dimer mixtures for gaining access to the first examples of ketone alpha-arylation employing aryl methanesulfonates (mesylates) and expanding the scope of amination reactions involving these non-halide aryl electrophiles to primary alkyl amines for the first time. These transformations featured acetone and methylamine as coupling partners, both of which can be difficult substrates to monoarylate but were found to be coupled with ease in this chemistry.

The introduction of high fructose corn syrup into the diet has been proposed to be the cause of many illnesses related to the metabolic syndrome. Fructose and its metabolites can be metabolized into cytotoxic reactive dicarbonyls that can cause damage to macromolecules leading to deleterious consequences. Dihydroxyacetone, a fructose metabolite, was studied in this thesis. Its ability to autoxidize and cause protein carbonylation under standard (pH 7.4, 37°C) and oxidative stress conditions (Fentons reagent) was investigated. Dihydroxyacetone was able to form significant amounts of dicarbonyls and protein carbonylation. Several selected natural polyphenols were chosen for an in vitro toxicological study involving rat hepatocytes. The chosen dietary polyphenols were rutin, gallic acid, methylgallate, ethylgallate, propylgallate and curcumin. In this thesis, the polyphenols were found to be able to significantly protect against the deleterious effects of glyoxal and methylglyoxal. In summary, these polyphenols could be candidates for future in vivo studies.

The introduction of high fructose corn syrup into the diet has been proposed to be the cause of many illnesses related to the metabolic syndrome. Fructose and its metabolites can be metabolized into cytotoxic reactive dicarbonyls that can cause damage to macromolecules leading to deleterious consequences. Dihydroxyacetone, a fructose metabolite, was studied in this thesis. Its ability to autoxidize and cause protein carbonylation under standard (pH 7.4, 37°C) and oxidative stress conditions (Fentons reagent) was investigated. Dihydroxyacetone was able to form significant amounts of dicarbonyls and protein carbonylation. Several selected natural polyphenols were chosen for an in vitro toxicological study involving rat hepatocytes. The chosen dietary polyphenols were rutin, gallic acid, methylgallate, ethylgallate, propylgallate and curcumin. In this thesis, the polyphenols were found to be able to significantly protect against the deleterious effects of glyoxal and methylglyoxal. In summary, these polyphenols could be candidates for future in vivo studies.

Le présent projet de maîtrise s’intitule Conversion du méthanol en éther di-méthylique (DME) et de ce dernier en acétate de méthyle. Échelonné sur 24 mois, le travail a été scindé en deux parties importantes : la synthèse du DME par déshydratation du méthanol; la carbonylation du DME en acétate de méthyle. La caractérisation de ces deux systèmes catalytiques a pour but d’être une alternative à la synthèse industrielle des acétyles passant par la carbonylation du méthanol sous l’action de l’iodure de méthyle comme co-catalyseur avec le rhodium. L’impact de l’iodure de méthyle sur le plan économique fait l’objet du plusieurs efforts de développement dont une des avenues est celle passant par le DME. L’optimisation de la première réaction s’est conduite autour du choix de catalyseur, de la température, de la pression et des conditions hydrodynamiques. Ceci a permis de caractériser les performances de la réaction dont les trois principaux indicateurs choisis sont la conversion, la sélectivité et le taux de production. L’alumine-[gamma] comme catalyseur dans un réacteur à lit fixe permet d’atteindre une conversion du méthanol totalement sélective au DME de 80% à une LHSV (liquid hour space velocity) de 11h[indice supérieur -1] et ce à 330 °C et 2514 kPa. Le taux de production maximal calculé a été de 7.35 [symboles non conformes]. La carbonylation du DME s’est faite sous l’action de la zéolithe Mordénite et également dans un réacteur à lit fixe. Le ratio molaire des réactifs CO:DME, la température et la pression et ont été l’objet de l’étude paramétrique. À une GHSV[indice inférieur CO] de 1062 h[indice supérier -1], un ratio CO:DME de 10:1, une température de 230 °C et une pression de 3204 kPa (450 psig), il a été possible d’atteindre une conversion du DME en acétate de méthyle de 9%. Les résultats expérimentaux de chacune de ces deux réactions ont été analysés par rapport aux modèles théoriques d’équilibre thermodynamique ainsi qu’aux valeurs expérimentales répertoriées dans la littérature scientifique.

High chronic fructose consumption has been linked to many diseases. Sugar metabolites, especially glyoxal and methylglyoxal can form advanced glycation products, which contribute to the pathology of diabetic complications. Our objective was to study the metabolism of these metabolites and the associated protein carbonyation and cytotoxicity in isolated hepatocytes. In addition, the effect of oxidative stress on the metabolism of these toxins was also investigated. Methylglyoxal and glyoxal can induce protein carbonylation, which contributes to hepatocyte toxicity. Methylglyoxal, but not glyoxal, was detoxified mainly by the glyoxalase system. Both toxins can be metabolized by mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase. The detoxification of glyoxal was impaired under oxidative stress conditions (i.e. increased hydrogen peroxide level). Glyoxal was found to be a common autoxidation product from glyceraldehyde, hydroxypyruvate and glycolaldehyde. Glyoxal and the reactive oxygen species formation during the autoxidation process contributed to the hepatocyte toxicity of glyceraldehyde, hydroxypyruvate and glycolaldehyde.

High chronic fructose consumption has been linked to many diseases. Sugar metabolites, especially glyoxal and methylglyoxal can form advanced glycation products, which contribute to the pathology of diabetic complications. Our objective was to study the metabolism of these metabolites and the associated protein carbonyation and cytotoxicity in isolated hepatocytes. In addition, the effect of oxidative stress on the metabolism of these toxins was also investigated. Methylglyoxal and glyoxal can induce protein carbonylation, which contributes to hepatocyte toxicity. Methylglyoxal, but not glyoxal, was detoxified mainly by the glyoxalase system. Both toxins can be metabolized by mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase. The detoxification of glyoxal was impaired under oxidative stress conditions (i.e. increased hydrogen peroxide level). Glyoxal was found to be a common autoxidation product from glyceraldehyde, hydroxypyruvate and glycolaldehyde. Glyoxal and the reactive oxygen species formation during the autoxidation process contributed to the hepatocyte toxicity of glyceraldehyde, hydroxypyruvate and glycolaldehyde.

Yes / A 16-electron iridium organometallic is reacted with carbon monoxide to form an 18-electron CO-adduct. This CO-adduct is stable for weeks in the solid state, but quickly reverts to its parent 16-e complex in tetrahydrofuran solution, releasing CO(g). Using a simple methodology, we show that this gas can subsequently be used to perform a carbonylation reaction on another molecule. / Royal Society; Academy of Medical Sciences/the Wellcome Trust/the Government Department of Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy/the British Heart Foundation Springboard Award

L’essor de la chimie organométallique a permis de développer de nouvelles possibilités dans le domaine du diagnostic médical, en particulier pour la tomographie à émission de positrons (TEP). Ainsi, de nouvelles méthodologies ont été développées pour permettre la synthèse de bio-traceurs avec le marquage au 11C comme étape finale. Dans ce contexte, notre équipe a récemment développé une nouvelle méthodologie pour marquer une large variété de substrats dans des conditions standards de carbonylation et ces travaux de thèse présentent une nouvelle stratégie de synthèse impliquant la préformation de complexes palladiés supportées. Ainsi, leurs ancrages préalables sur une résine facilitent la réaction de carbonylation en simplifiant leur purification. De nouveaux complexes à base de palladium ont aussi été synthétisés et étudiés pour envisager de potentielles applications en catalyse photorédox. Enfin le développement de nouvelles stratégies de couplage impliquant des intermédiaires d’or (III) étant un domaine en plein expansion, notamment lorsqu’elles combinent catalyse à l’or et photorédox, il a été envisagé de synthétiser de nouveaux complexes d’or afin d’étudier les mécanismes réactionnels impliqués dans ces couplages et d’évaluer les possibilités de synthèse de composés biaryliques atropoisomériques. / The growth of organometallic chemistry has allowed numerous developments in the field of medical diagnosis, especially for Positron Emission Tomography (PET). Developing new methodologies for the synthesis of biological tracers by a last-step 11C labeling, our team has been recently able to take advantage of the great functional tolerance of palladium-catalyzed carbonylation to achieve this goal. A new synthetic strategy involving preformed palladium complexes is described in this manuscript. Their anchoring on a polystyrene resin allowed subsequently to facilitate the carbonylation process by simplifying the purification. New palladium complexes have also been investigated for their potential photoredox applications. Finally, new coupling strategies implying gold (III) intermediates and photoredox catalysis being a very attractive subject, new gold complexes have been synthetized in order to investigate the reaction mechanisms that could operate. Possibilities of asymmetric induction in the synthesis of atropoisomeric biaryl compounds were also studied.

De par l'omniprésence des rayonnements ionisants, l’évaluation de leur impact sur les écosystèmes est devenue une préoccupation environnementale majeure. Cependant, l’évaluation des risques environnementaux liés aux expositions chroniques souffre d’un manque de connaissances, d’autant que l’extrapolation des données acquises après exposition aiguë (plus nombreuses) ne semble pas adaptée pour la prédiction des effets des expositions chroniques. Pour exemple, les effets sur les paramètres individuels i.e. la reproduction, diffèrent entre ces deux modes d’expositions, suggérant que les mécanismes moléculaires sous-jacents diffèrent également. Il est donc nécessaire de réaliser des études au niveau individuel et subcellulaire afin de mieux comprendre les différences de radiotoxicité observées entre les deux modes d’irradiation. Les protéines sont les molécules fonctionnelles dans les organismes, elles peuvent être les cibles de dommages oxydatifs (i.e carbonylation), et sont susceptibles d’être des marqueurs pertinents et sensibles de l’exposition aux rayonnements ionisants. Ainsi, l’objectif de ce projet de thèse était d’améliorer la compréhension des mécanismes moléculaires de radiotoxicité (aigu vs chronique) en étudiant particulièrement la contribution du protéome chez un organisme modèle, le nématode Caenorhabditis elegans. Pour ce faire, l’étude des effets d’irradiation gamma aiguë et chronique sur une large gamme de doses (0,5 - 200Gy, dont 4 doses communes aux deux modes d’exposition) a été opérée au niveau individuel, et en particulier sur la reproduction, paramètre susceptible d’influencer directement la dynamique des populations. En complément, la modulation de l'expression des protéines mais aussi leurs dommages (i.e carbonylation) et leur dégradation par le protéasome ont été évalués. Les résultats ont montré que l’irradiation aiguë induit un effet sur le succès d’éclosion et sur la ponte totale dès 30Gy alors que seule la ponte totale est impactée par l’irradiation chronique à partir de 3,3Gy. A l’échelle moléculaire, les niveaux de protéines carbonylées sont très peu modulés après exposition chronique ou aiguë aux rayonnements ionisants. Le protéasome semble être impliqué dans la dégradation des protéines carbonylées après irradiation chronique. En revanche, après irradiation aiguë, celui-ci semble dépassé, suggérant une possible implication d’autres mécanismes de défense (autophagie). Les profils d’expression des protéines, et notamment de protéines impliquées dans l’apoptose, la réparation des dommages à l’ADN, la réplication et la reproduction sont différents après irradiation aiguë et chronique. Ainsi, les protéines nécessaires au développement embryonnaire sont réprimées après irradiation aiguë dès 0,5 Gy alors que celles impliquées dans le développement de la lignée germinale sont surexprimées. Ces dernières sont réprimées après irradiation chronique dès 0,5 Gy. Ces résultats, suggèrent que les mécanismes de radiotoxicité entre les expositions aiguës et chroniques sont bien distincts, et que les effets de l’irradiation aiguë pourraient être dus à une perturbation de l’embryogénèse (via l’accumulation de dommages génotoxiques). A l’inverse, l’irradiation chronique induirait un effet sur la gamétogénèse se traduisant par une baisse de la ponte totale sans affecter l’embryogénèse. Ce projet de recherche nous a permis d’apporter des connaissances sur les cascades d’évènements moléculaires suite à différentes conditions d'irradiation gamma et illustre l’intérêt d’utiliser une approche intégrée pour mieux prédire et comprendre les effets observés sur les grandes fonctions biologiques. De plus ces travaux ont permis de caractériser des marqueurs protéiques d’exposition plus sensibles que les marqueurs individuels puisque l’activité du protéasome et l’expression des protéines est modulée dès 0,5Gy. In fine cet ensemble de données contribuera à améliorer l’évaluation des risques pour l’environnement. / Because of the ubiquitous nature of ionizing radiation, the risk assessment on ecosystems has become a major environmental concern. However, the environmental risk assessment of chronic exposures suffers from a lack of knowledge, especially because the extrapolation of data acquired after acute exposure in order to predict the effects of chronic exposures is not always relevant. Indeed, the effects on the individual parameters, i.e reproduction, differ between these two irradiation modes, suggesting that underlying mechanisms are also different. It is therefore necessary to carry out studies at the individual and at the subcellular level in order to better understand molecular mechanisms governing these differences in the observed effects. Proteins are the functional molecules in organisms, they can be the targets of oxidative damage (i.e carbonylation), and are likely to be relevant and sensitive markers of exposure to ionizing radiation. Thus, the objective of this research project was to improve the understanding of molecular mechanisms of radiotoxicity (acute vs chronic), particularly by studying the proteome contribution, on the biological model Caenorhabditis elegans. The study of the acute and chronic gamma irradiation effects, on a large dose range (between 0.5 and 200Gy, including 4 common doses to both irradiation modes), was performed at the individual level with the reproduction as endpoint, a parameter likely to directly influence the dynamic of populations. In addition, the modulation of protein expression but also their damage (i.e. carbonylation) and their degradation by the proteasome were evaluated. The results showed that acute irradiation induced an effect on hatching success and on total spawning from 30 Gy whereas only total spawning was impacted after chronic irradiation from 3.3 Gy. At the molecular level, the global level of carbonylated proteins was not so modified after chronic or acute exposure to ionizing radiation. The proteasome appears to be involved in the degradation of carbonylated proteins after chronic irradiation whereas after acute irradiation, it seems overtaken, suggesting a possible involvement of other defense mechanisms (autophagy). The protein expression, and particularly proteins involved in apoptosis, DNA repair, replication and reproduction, is differentially modulated after acute and chronic exposure. Thus, the proteins involved in embryonic development are repressed after acute irradiation as soon as 0.5 Gy whereas those involved in the germline development are overexpressed. These results suggest that the radiotoxicity mechanisms between acute and chronic exposures are quite different and that the effects of acute irradiation may be due to an embryogenesis disturbance (via the accumulation of genotoxic damage). Conversely to acute, chronic irradiation induces an effect on gametogenesis, resulting in a decrease of the total spawning without impacting embryogenesis. This research project allowed us to provide knowledge on the molecular cascade events following different gamma irradiation conditions and highlights the need of using an integrated approach to better predict and understand the observed effects on major biological functions. Moreover, this work allowed characterizing more sensitive markers of exposure than the individual ones as the proteasome activity and the protein expression is modulated from 0.5Gy. Ultimately this dataset would help to improve the environmental risk assessment.

Thesis (MSc (Chemistry and Polymer Science))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: In this thesis we describe the synthesis of several new N-(n-propyl)-1-(2-pyridyl and quinolyl)-imine ligands (ML1-ML4) as well as peripheral functionalised iminopyridyl and iminoquinolyl poly(propylene-imine) dendrimeric ligands (DL1-DL8) with a 1,4- diaminobutane core. The dendrimeric ligands were obtained by modification of the peripheral groups of Generation 1 and Generation 2 poly(propylene-imine) dendrimers, (DAB-(NH2)n which are commercially available, with a series of aldehydes. All the ligands were fully characterised by ESI-mass spectrometry, elemental analysis, 1H&13C{1H}-NMR, FT-IR and UV/Vis spectroscopies. These ligands were utilised to synthesise Pd(II) and Cu(I) complexes using appropriate metal precursors. Some of mononuclear complexes, [N-(n-propyl)-(2-pyridyl and quinolyl) methanimine] dichloro Pd(II) complexes (C1-C4) and bis[N-(n-propyl)-(2-pyridyl and quinolyl) methanimine] copper(I) tetrafluoroborate complexes (C14) were structurally characterised. Pd(II) complexes adopted a distorted square-planar geometry around the metal centre while Cu(I) complex exhibit a distorted tetrahedral arrangement around the metal centre. Both Pd(II) and Cu(I) multinuclear complexes (metallodendrimers) were characterised using a range of analytical techniques. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: In hierdie tesis word die sintese van verskeie nuwe N-(n-propiel)-1-(2-piridiel) en kinolielimien ligande (ML1-ML4) sowel as gefunksioneerde imienopiridiel en imienokinoliel poli(propilien-imien) dendrimeriese ligande (DL1-DL8) beskryf. Die dendrimeriese ligande was behaal deur die modifikasie van perifere groepe van Generasie 1 en Generasie 2 poli(propilien-imien) dendrimere met ‘n reeks aldehiede. Alle ligande was volledig deur ESI-massaspektrometrie, elementele analiese, 1H en 13C{1H} – KMR, FT-IR en UV/Sigbare spektroskopie gekarakteriseerd. Hierdie ligande was gebruik om Pd(II) en Cu(I) komplekse te berei om van die gepaste metaal voorlopers te gebruik te maak. Sommige van die mono-kern komplekse, [N-(npropiel)-( 2-piridiel) en kinoliel metanimien] dikloor Pd(II), komplekse (C1-C4) en bis[N-(npropiel)-( 2-piridiel) metanimien] koper(I) tetrafloorboraat, kompleks (C14) was struktureël gekarakteriseerd. Pd(II) komplekse neem ‘n versteurde vierkant valk geometrie om die metaal senter aan, terwyl die Cu(I) kompleks, ‘n versteurde tetrahedriese opset rondom die metaal toon. Beide Pd(II) en Cu(I) multikern komplekse (metaaldendrimere) was deur ‘n verskeidenheid van analitiese tegnieke gekarakteriseerd.