The last decades of research in cardiovascular prevention have been characterized by successful bench-to-bedside developments for the treatment of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) hypercholesterolemia. Recent examples include the inhibition of proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) with monoclonal antibodies, small interfering RNA and antisense RNA drugs. The cumulative effects of LDL cholesterol on atherosclerosis make early, potent, and long-term reductions in LDL cholesterol desirable—ideally without the need of regular intake or application of medication and importantly, without side effects. Current reports show durable LDL cholesterol reductions in primates following one single treatment with PCSK9 gene or base editors. Use of the CRISPR/Cas system enables precise genome editing down to single-nucleotide changes. Provided safety and documentation of a reduction in cardiovascular events, this novel technique has the potential to fundamentally change our current concepts of cardiovascular prevention. In this review, the application of the CRISPR/Cas system is explained and the current state of in vivo approaches of PCSK9 editing is presented.

Metabolic syndrome is defined as a combination of obesity, elevated triglycerides, decreased high-density lipoproteins, hypertension and insulin resistance. It is at least partially caused by sedentary life style and unhealthy dietary habits and is a major risk factor for development and progression of cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes. Growing medical and socioeconomic impact of the metabolic syndrome warrants further active search for novel risk markers and therapeutic targets. Recent experimental and epidemiological studies have demonstrated the multiple roles of the endogenous methylarginines, asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA) and symmetric dimethylarginine (SDMA) as wells as the enzymes, which are involved in their catabolism, dimethyarginine dimethylaminohydrolases (DDAHs) and alanine:glyoxylate aminotransferase 2 (AGXT2) in the pathogenesis of metabolic syndrome and its complications. ADMA is thought to exhibit its pathological effects by inhibiting and uncoupling nitric oxide synthases (NOS), while SDMA can inhibit transport of L-arginine. DDAHs, namely DDAH1 and DDAH2, have been thought as the major enzymes metabolizing ADMA to citrulline, while being inactive towards SDMA. Experimental studies with upregulation of DDAH1 in animal models showed that lowering ADMA results in protection against endothelial dysfunction, atherosclerosis, ischemia/reperfusion injury and vascular remodeling, acceleration of angiogenesis in the settings of ischemia and improvement of insulin sensitivity. Unfortunately, all the attempts to upregulate DDAH1 using small drugs have not been successful. The data regarding the role of DDAH2 are contradictory, with some studies showing that it can metabolize ADMA under certain conditions and other studies questioning its enzymatic activity towards ADMA. AGXT2 is a mitochondrial aminotransferase, which can metabolize, among its other substrates, both ADMA and SDMA. It is a large protein with possible allosteric regulatory sites, suggesting that, in contrast to DDAH1, it could be upregulated by small molecules. The role of AGXT2 in different pathophysiological processes involving ADMA and SDMA is poorly understood. It has been recently discovered in the offspring cohort of the Framingham Heart Study participants that a composite compound, consisting of the products of metabolism of ADMA and SDMA by AGXT2 (asymmetric dimethylguanidino valeric acid (ADGV) and symmetric dimethylguanidino valeric acid (SDGV), correspondingly) is an independent biomarker of CT (computed tomography)-defined NAFLD (non-alcoholic fatty liver disease) and a predictor of future diabetes up to 12 years before disease, suggesting that AGXT2 may play a key role in development of metabolic disease and its progression. We and other have recently identified several other metabolically active substrates of AGXT2, such as a marker of cardiovascular and overall mortality homoarginine and a regulator of fatty acid oxidation and browning of adipose tissue beta-amino-isobutyric acid (BAIBA), which further supports the importance of AGXT2 in pathogenesis of cardiovascular and metabolic diseases. The data presented in the current thesis enable answering the two research aims: 1) Identification of the tissue and intracellular expression pattern of human AGXT2 and 2) Testing the hypothesis that ubiquitous transgenic overexpression of AGXT2 protects from ADMA-induced vascular damage in vivo. The first research aim provided a thorough characterization of AGXT2 expression in humans using multiple complimentary techniques and addressed the current discrepancy in the literature with previous demonstration of comparable levels of Agxt2 expression by RT-PCR and Western Blot in the kidneys and liver in mice, and previous reports on detection of predominant Agxt2 expression in the kidneys by Northern Blot and in-situ RNA-hybridization in rats. In our current study we analyzed AGXT2 expression in human tissues from a normal tissue bank by RT-PCR and further validated the results by Western Blot. We also performed immunohistochemical staining for AGXT2 and double fluorescent staining with an anti-AGXT2 antibody and a monoclonal anti-mitochondrial antibody. We saw the strongest expression of AGXT2 in the kidney and liver both on the mRNA and protein levels. Our immunohistochemistry stainings showed that AGXT2 is present in the convoluted tubule in the kidney and in the liver hepatocytes. The double fluorescent staining revealed the intracellular localization of AGXT2 in mitochondria. In the second research aim we investigated whether long-term upregulation of AGXT2 is safe and can protect from ADMA- mediated vascular damage in the setting of DDAH1 deficiency, which is commonly observed in cardiovascular pathologies. We generated AGXT2 transgenic (TG) mice with ubiquitous overexpression of AGXT2. qPCR and Western Blot confirmed the expression of the transgene. Systemic ADMA levels were decreased by 15% in TG mice. In comparison with wild type animals plasma levels of ADGV, the AGXT2 associated metabolite of ADMA, were six times higher. We crossed AGXT2 TG mice with DDAH1 knockout mice and observed that upregulation of AGXT2 lowers plasma ADMA and pulse pressure and protects the mice from endothelial dysfunction and adverse aortic remodeling. The work, included into this thesis demonstrates that both hepatocytes and kidney tubular epithelial cells are the major sources of AGXT2 in humans, where the enzyme is localized in mitochondria. The expression of AGXT2 in the liver is consistent with the proposed role of AGXT2 in development and progression of NAFLD and is consistent with our previous discovery of hepatocyte nuclear factor 4 alpha (HNF4α) as the major regulator of Agxt2 expression in the mouse liver. Chronic upregulation of AGXT2 in mice lowered systemic ADMA levels without any obvious effects on viability, development, growth and fertility, suggesting potential safety of this ADMA-lowering approach. Overexpression of AGXT2 protected from ADMA-induced vascular damage in the highly clinically relevant settings of DDAH1 deficiency, suggesting that the observed vascular damage was indeed caused by ADMA itself, rather than by some ADMA-independent effects of DDAH1 deficiency. The observed protective effects of AGXT2 upregulation are especially important, because all the efforts to develop pharmacological ADMA-lowering interventions by means of upregulation of DDAHs have been unsuccessful. The current study, therefore, provides the basis for the future screens to identify small molecules, which would upregulate AGXT2 activity.

In the United States, individuals of Hispanic ethnicity receive disproportionately lower-quality healthcare. These healthcare disparities exacerbate unequal access to quality healthcare services, including disparities in cardiovascular disease (CVD) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) care. Research on the role of ethnicity on the CVD outcomes of people living with HIV (PLWH) has been limited. We hypothesize that immunological (CD4+ cell count) and virological (HIV viral load) control may play a role in the development of acute myocardial infarction (AMI) among PLWH, and that Hispanic ethnicity may worsen these outcomes. To verify our hypotheses, we conducted a retrospective cross-sectional study to investigate the strength and direction of association between CD4+ cell count (immunological cohort, n=513) and HIV viral load (virological cohort, n=261) on AMI among respondents of the All of Us Research Program. Hispanic and non-Hispanic respondents for both cohorts were comparable in terms of demographic characteristics, except for a significantly different distribution by race. While we identified increased proportion of non-Hispanic individuals with AMI in the immunologic (6.0% vs. 1.0%; P=0.04) and virologic (5.8% vs. 0%; P=0.007) cohorts, we were not able to identify CD4+ cell count or viral load as significant predictors significantly increasing the likelihood of AMI. Potential explanations discussed include self-selection bias resulting in incomplete laboratory data and an underpowered sample size. While the sample in this study did not support an increased likelihood of AMI by ethnicity, the results should be interpreted carefully in light of the limitations and the established pathophysiological and epidemiological associations posited, underscoring the importance of future research efforts that better represent ethnic minorities and the associations between HIV infection and CVD.

Le cancer et les maladies cardiovasculaires sont deux problèmes de santé majeurs. Les survivants du cancer ont un risque plus élevé de développer et de mourir d'une maladie cardiovasculaire par rapport à la population générale. De même, les patients atteints de maladies cardiovasculaires sont également plus susceptibles de recevoir un diagnostic de cancer. Bien que les deux conditions partagent de nombreux facteurs de risque, le cancer et les maladies cardiovasculaires ont traditionnellement été étudiés séparément. Récemment, une vague de recherches en cours a mis en évidence des points communs biologiques entre le cancer et les maladies cardiovasculaires. Ces découvertes ont été rendues possibles grâce à des avancées scientifiques importantes, notamment la caractérisation moléculaire élargie des modulateurs de l'inflammation, l'élucidation des structures du protéasome et de l'inflammasome, ainsi que des contributions visant à renforcer nos connaissances sur l'immunité cellulaire. Grâce à ces avancées, il est désormais possible d'obtenir des informations précieuses sur les circuits complexes de la réponse immunitaire innée et adaptative, ainsi que sur les mécanismes de défense de l'hôte. Les progrès notables réalisés dans ces domaines ont posé les bases solides de la biologie de l'inflammation. L'application des principes appris dans ce domaine à la maladie humaine n'a que récemment commencé à donner des résultats fructueux, conduisant à la croissance exponentielle du domaine de l'inflammation dans le cancer et les maladies cardiovasculaires. Pour le cancer comme pour les maladies cardiovasculaires, l'immunomodulation est récemment apparue comme un facteur clé dans leur traitement et leur prise en charge. Avec le temps, il est également devenu évident que cibler une voie inflammatoire particulière pour traiter une condition peut avoir des implications importantes pour l'autre, reflétant l'interaction complexe entre ces deux processus pathologiques. Les avancées réalisées ont permis de reconnaître que l'inflammation joue un rôle actif dans le développement et la progression physiopathologique du cancer et des maladies cardiovasculaires. Toutefois, la compréhension de l'inflammation sur le cancer et les maladies cardiovasculaires est en constante évolution, et des recherches en cours sont nécessaires pour découvrir de nouvelles informations sur les mécanismes complexes de leurs relations. Dans ce contexte, nous avons entrepris des analyses distinctes pour approfondir notre compréhension et contribuer aux efforts de recherche innovants en cours, afin de réduire le fardeau croissant du cancer et des maladies cardiovasculaires. Premièrement, nous avons effectué une méta-analyse génétique sur le risque de cancer incident chez les patients atteints de maladie coronarienne prenant des statines. Dans cette étude, nous avons pu identifier et répliquer une variation génétique associée à un risque plus élevé de diagnostic incident de cancer chez les femmes utilisatrices de statines. La variation génétique se trouvait dans la région de l'antigène leucocytaire humain qui est largement responsable de l'activation des lymphocytes T et de la régulation des réponses immunitaires. Ces résultats réitèrent l'implication active des processus inflammatoires sous-jacents à la maladie coronarienne et au cancer. Deuxièmement, nous avons cherché à explorer l'effet de l'hématopoïèse clonale, une condition dans laquelle certaines cellules sanguines sont produites à partir d'une seule cellule mutée plutôt qu'à partir de processus normaux de production de cellules sanguines, sur le risque de décès par causes cardiovasculaires chez les patients diagnostiqués avec un cancer en utilisant une grande cohorte prospective. Dans une première analyse, nos résultats ont montré que les porteurs de modifications chromosomiques en mosaïque, un type distinct d'hématopoïèse clonale, présentaient un risque plus élevé de décès par maladie coronarienne que les non-porteurs. Dans une analyse de suivi, nos résultats ont montré que les porteurs d'hématopoïèse clonale de potentiel indéterminé étaient plus susceptibles de succomber à la mort due à des causes de maladies cardiovasculaires que les non-porteurs. Bien que la présence combinée des deux types d'hématopoïèse clonale n'était pas associée à un effet additif sur les critères d'évaluation liés aux maladies cardiovasculaires, elle a conféré un risque plus élevé de mortalité globale par rapport à ceux ayant un seul type d'hématopoïèse clonale. D'autres contributions scientifiques apportées au cours de mes études doctorales mettent l'accent sur le potentiel de l'utilisation de thérapies anti-inflammatoires pour réguler l'inflammation, et donc modifier le développement de l'hématopoïèse clonale, réduisant efficacement les événements cardiovasculaires et éventuellement les effets liés au cancer. Dans l'ensemble, les résultats de la thèse actuelle confirment que les processus inflammatoires sous-tendent le développement et la progression des maladies cardiovasculaires et du cancer. Cependant, les résultats de cette thèse soulignent la nécessité d'une évaluation continue, compte tenu des variations dans les liens entre l'inflammation, le cancer et les maladies cardiovasculaires à travers diverses voies inflammatoires et types de cancers. / Cancer and cardiovascular diseases are two major health threats to humanity. Survivors of cancer have a higher risk of developing and dying from cardiovascular disease compared to the general population. Similarly, patients with cardiovascular disease are also more likely to be diagnosed with cancer. While both conditions share many risk factors, cancer and cardiovascular disease have traditionally been studied in isolation. Recently, ongoing research has revealed biological commonalities between the two diseases. These findings are owed to significant scientific advances that have allowed for an expanded molecular characterization of inflammatory modulators, the elucidation of the structures of proteasome and inflammasome, and the advancement of knowledge in cellular immunity. Thanks to these advancements, valuable insights can now be gained into the complex circuity of the innate and adaptive immune response, as well as the mechanisms of the host defenses. The remarkable progress made in these areas has laid a strong foundation for inflammation biology, and the application of the principles learned in this field to human disease has only recently begun to yield fruitful results, leading to the exponential growth of the field of inflammation in cancer and cardiovascular disease. For both cancer and cardiovascular disease, immuno-modulation has recently emerged as a key factor in their treatment and management. Moreover, it has become apparent that targeting a particular inflammatory pathway to treat one condition can have significant implications for the other, reflecting the complex interplay between these two disease processes. These developments have enabled the recognition that inflammation is an active participant in the pathophysiological development and progression of both cancer and cardiovascular disease. However, our understanding of the role of inflammation in cancer and cardiovascular disease is still evolving, as ongoing research is necessary to uncover new insights into the complex mechanisms of their triangular relationship. In the present PhD thesis, we sought to conduct distinct analyses that would further our understanding and contribute to the current efforts in innovative research that could help reduce the growing burden of cancer and cardiovascular disease. First, we performed a genetic meta-analysis on the risk of incident cancer in patients with coronary artery disease taking statins. In that study, we were able to identify and replicate a genetic variant that was associated with a higher risk of incident cancer diagnosis in women statin users. The genetic variant was located in the human leukocyte antigen region that is largely responsible for the activation of T cells and the regulation of immune responses. These findings underscore the active involvement of inflammatory processes in the development of coronary artery disease and cancer. Second, we sought to explore the effect of clonal hematopoiesis, a condition in which certain blood cells are produced from a single mutated cell rather than from normal blood cell production processes, on the risk of death from cardiovascular-related causes in a large prospective cohort of patients diagnosed with cancer. In a first analysis, our findings showed that carriers of mosaic chromosomal alterations, a distinct type of clonal hematopoiesis, had a higher risk of death from coronary artery disease than non-carriers. In a follow-up analysis, our findings showed that carriers of clonal hematopoiesis of indeterminate potential were more likely to succumb to death from cardiovascular disease causes than non-carriers, and while the combined presence of both types of clonal hematopoiesis was not associated with an additive effect on cardiovascular-related endpoints, it did confer a greater risk of overall mortality compared to those with either type of clonal hematopoiesis alone. Other scientific contributions made during the course of my doctoral studies emphasize on the potential use of anti-inflammatory therapeutics to alter the course of clonal evolution, for the purpose of reducing cardiovascular-related outcomes, and simultaneously cancer-related endpoints. Overall, the results of this thesis support the notion that inflammatory processes underlie both diseases’ development and progression. However, the results of this thesis also highlight the need for continuous evaluation, taking into account the variations in the connections among inflammation, cancer, and cardiovascular disease across various inflammatory pathways and types of cancers.

The purpose of this study was to discern the effectiveness of Cardiac Rehabilitation/ Secondary Prevention Programs (CR/ SPP’s) by evaluating increased functional capacity in the form of MET (metabolic equivalent) scores post-myocardial infarction (MI) or heart attack. The Duke Activity Status Index (DASI) survey is administered as part of the Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) for participation in the Secondary Prevention Program. Criterion for the research included patients 65 and older, with a history of one myocardial infarction, and had completed all 36 sessions of CR. The scores from 11 SPP surveys were analyzed and compared in three time increments from sessions 1-18 (initial, or “pre”), sessions 19-36 (“pan”), and sessions 1-36 (“post”). A total of 11 (n=11) surveys were collected and analyzed at The Computing and Statistical Technology Laboratory in Education (CASTLE) in the Teaching Academy on UCF Main Campus. Results from the data showed mean MET scores of 6.21 at session 1, 7.59 at session 18, and 8.15 at session 36. The mean changes over time represented in METs were 1.38 (1), .56 (18), and 1.93 (36). Percent changes over time were 27% (1), 8% (18), and 36% (36). This study showed increased functional capacity over time and will improve program design in terms of frequency and duration.

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<p>There has been much controversy in the cardiovascular literature regarding sex/gender differences in the presentation of coronary artery disease and downstream implications. The aim of this thesis is not to resolve this controversy, but rather to assess and critique potential sex/gender similarities and differences from a variety of perspectives, explored through various methodologies.</p> <p>This thesis contains four main studies, each employing different quantitative and qualitative methods. An overarching framework was developed to contextualise each study presented in this thesis. The first main study entitled, the “<em>RACE CAR”</em> trial assessed physician opinion <em>prospectively</em> observing that women are perceived to benefit less from cardiac catheterization compared to men, while controlling for age, TIMI risk and preference for cardiac catheterization. The <em>“Identifying women with severe angiographic coronary disease</em>” study observed physician referral patterns <em>retrospectively</em> and determined that although women are less likely to have severe angiographic disease compared to men, the traditional risk factors and CCS Class IV angina are significant predictors of severe angiographic disease. This is an important finding to help physicians better identify women at risk.</p> <p>The findings from these two studies identified the need for the cardiovascular research community to better define angina, particularly among women. Using qualitative methodology, a new theory of angina emerged, illustrating symptoms along a <em>gender continuum</em>. Based on the findings from the qualitative study, the final study of this thesis developed an assessment tool to test the symptom parameters along the <em>gender continuum</em>. The findings confirm that the symptoms of women and men represent more <em>shared experiences</em> rather than differences, particularly among patients with obstructive coronary artery disease.</p> <p>These studies collectively address knowledge gaps and add new information to various stages of patient cardiac care within the sex/gender programme of cardiovascular research.</p> / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)