The current study provides evidence for the dissociation between two types of asymmetries in relations within semantic memory: those due to unidirectional associative strength (e.g., Kahan, Neely & Forsythe, 1999), and the inherent asymmetry of causal relations (e.g., Fenker, Waldmann & Holyoak, 2005). By manipulating the stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) in a relation recognition task, I demonstrate that expectancy differentially impacts the effects of these asymmetries. An asymmetrical directional response time advantage was seen with causal relations at both long (1000 ms) and short (150 ms) SOAs, but only at long SOAs for unidirectional associates. These data are taken to support the hypothesis that latencies due to unidirectional association are a result of the manner in which these relations are accessed, and latencies due to the asymmetry of causal relations are reflective of the manner in which cause-effect asymmetries are represented.

The current study provides evidence for the dissociation between two types of asymmetries in relations within semantic memory: those due to unidirectional associative strength (e.g., Kahan, Neely & Forsythe, 1999), and the inherent asymmetry of causal relations (e.g., Fenker, Waldmann & Holyoak, 2005). By manipulating the stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) in a relation recognition task, I demonstrate that expectancy differentially impacts the effects of these asymmetries. An asymmetrical directional response time advantage was seen with causal relations at both long (1000 ms) and short (150 ms) SOAs, but only at long SOAs for unidirectional associates. These data are taken to support the hypothesis that latencies due to unidirectional association are a result of the manner in which these relations are accessed, and latencies due to the asymmetry of causal relations are reflective of the manner in which cause-effect asymmetries are represented.

This dissertation is a study of Arguments and Clausal Relations of Pima Bajo within the framework of Categorial Unification Grammar. The theoretical framework explored assumes the existence of three major categories--the Argument Categorizing Element, The Propositional Radical, and the Proposition--and studies the structure building mechanisms which account for those categories. The major categories are taken to be feature-value complexes which combine, via unification, with different type of pronominal forms. It is shown that the notion of arguments as feature-values and the application of a categorial unification grammar accounts for the structure of simple as well as for complex constructions. The final part of the dissertation discusses a phonological algebra which accounts for the linear order of elements.

Os indicadores de desempenho têm papel fundamental na gestão das organizações, pois mostram aos decisores a situação da organização e como ela se encontra em relação a seus objetivos. Entre os sistemas de indicadores de desempenho utilizado nas organizações, têm tido destaque a conjugação de métricas financeiras e não financeiras, baseada na crença de que a melhora nos resultados não financeiros irá ocasionar a melhora nos índices financeiros. Entretanto, não há uma metodologia consagrada para testar se esses relacionamentos (relações de causa-e-efeito) existem na realidade. O objetivo desse trabalho foi propor e validar parcialmente uma metodologia para testar e quantificar as relações causais entre indicadores de desempenho. A seqüência de passos foi definida a partir da literatura através da implementação de ferramentas do Desdobramento da Função Qualidade, Gerenciamento pelas Diretrizes, Pensamento Sistêmico e Ferramenta para Seleção de Planos de Ação. O método escolhido para sua validação parcial foi o estudo de caso. A unidade de análise foi uma organização que já utiliza métricas financeiras e não financeiras e possui base histórica de dados. A pesquisa utilizou como fontes de evidência a observação participante e entrevista estruturada. Para a análise dos dados foram utilizadas técnicas estatísticas e representação escrita. Os resultados permitem concluir que a metodologia consegue quantificar as relações causais entre métricas de desempenho. A aplicação também gerou grande aprendizado organizacional. A principal contribuição desse trabalho é o modelo conceitual parcialmente validado o qual pode ser utilizado para transformar o sistema de indicadores de desempenho em fonte de informações para a tomada de decisão através da quantificação das relações de causa-e-efeito. / Performance metrics have a fundamental role in organizations, because they show to decision makers the situation of the organization in relation to its objectives. Most of the metrics systems used have financial and non-financial indicators, based on the belief that if a non-financial performance is increased, it will cause the same behavior in financial results. On the other hand, there is not a consecrated methodology to test if these relationships (causal relations) exist in the real world. The objective of this paper is to propose and partially validate a methodology to test and quantify the causal relations among performance metrics. A sequence of steps was defined from literature research, using tools from Quality Function Deployment, Policy Deployment, System Dynamics and Tool for Action Planning Selection. The research method chosen was case study. The research unit was an organization that already uses financial and non-financial metrics and has historic data of it. As font of evidences, were used participant observation and structure interviews. Data analysis was made with statistical techniques and written representation. From the results, it can be concluded using the methodology it’s possible to quantify the causal relations between performance metrics. The application of this methodology also contributed the organizations learning. The mainly contribution of this paper is the partially validated conceptual methodology, that can be used to make the performance metric system a information source to decision making, trough the quantification of causal relations.

Os indicadores de desempenho têm papel fundamental na gestão das organizações, pois mostram aos decisores a situação da organização e como ela se encontra em relação a seus objetivos. Entre os sistemas de indicadores de desempenho utilizado nas organizações, têm tido destaque a conjugação de métricas financeiras e não financeiras, baseada na crença de que a melhora nos resultados não financeiros irá ocasionar a melhora nos índices financeiros. Entretanto, não há uma metodologia consagrada para testar se esses relacionamentos (relações de causa-e-efeito) existem na realidade. O objetivo desse trabalho foi propor e validar parcialmente uma metodologia para testar e quantificar as relações causais entre indicadores de desempenho. A seqüência de passos foi definida a partir da literatura através da implementação de ferramentas do Desdobramento da Função Qualidade, Gerenciamento pelas Diretrizes, Pensamento Sistêmico e Ferramenta para Seleção de Planos de Ação. O método escolhido para sua validação parcial foi o estudo de caso. A unidade de análise foi uma organização que já utiliza métricas financeiras e não financeiras e possui base histórica de dados. A pesquisa utilizou como fontes de evidência a observação participante e entrevista estruturada. Para a análise dos dados foram utilizadas técnicas estatísticas e representação escrita. Os resultados permitem concluir que a metodologia consegue quantificar as relações causais entre métricas de desempenho. A aplicação também gerou grande aprendizado organizacional. A principal contribuição desse trabalho é o modelo conceitual parcialmente validado o qual pode ser utilizado para transformar o sistema de indicadores de desempenho em fonte de informações para a tomada de decisão através da quantificação das relações de causa-e-efeito. / Performance metrics have a fundamental role in organizations, because they show to decision makers the situation of the organization in relation to its objectives. Most of the metrics systems used have financial and non-financial indicators, based on the belief that if a non-financial performance is increased, it will cause the same behavior in financial results. On the other hand, there is not a consecrated methodology to test if these relationships (causal relations) exist in the real world. The objective of this paper is to propose and partially validate a methodology to test and quantify the causal relations among performance metrics. A sequence of steps was defined from literature research, using tools from Quality Function Deployment, Policy Deployment, System Dynamics and Tool for Action Planning Selection. The research method chosen was case study. The research unit was an organization that already uses financial and non-financial metrics and has historic data of it. As font of evidences, were used participant observation and structure interviews. Data analysis was made with statistical techniques and written representation. From the results, it can be concluded using the methodology it’s possible to quantify the causal relations between performance metrics. The application of this methodology also contributed the organizations learning. The mainly contribution of this paper is the partially validated conceptual methodology, that can be used to make the performance metric system a information source to decision making, trough the quantification of causal relations.

Os indicadores de desempenho têm papel fundamental na gestão das organizações, pois mostram aos decisores a situação da organização e como ela se encontra em relação a seus objetivos. Entre os sistemas de indicadores de desempenho utilizado nas organizações, têm tido destaque a conjugação de métricas financeiras e não financeiras, baseada na crença de que a melhora nos resultados não financeiros irá ocasionar a melhora nos índices financeiros. Entretanto, não há uma metodologia consagrada para testar se esses relacionamentos (relações de causa-e-efeito) existem na realidade. O objetivo desse trabalho foi propor e validar parcialmente uma metodologia para testar e quantificar as relações causais entre indicadores de desempenho. A seqüência de passos foi definida a partir da literatura através da implementação de ferramentas do Desdobramento da Função Qualidade, Gerenciamento pelas Diretrizes, Pensamento Sistêmico e Ferramenta para Seleção de Planos de Ação. O método escolhido para sua validação parcial foi o estudo de caso. A unidade de análise foi uma organização que já utiliza métricas financeiras e não financeiras e possui base histórica de dados. A pesquisa utilizou como fontes de evidência a observação participante e entrevista estruturada. Para a análise dos dados foram utilizadas técnicas estatísticas e representação escrita. Os resultados permitem concluir que a metodologia consegue quantificar as relações causais entre métricas de desempenho. A aplicação também gerou grande aprendizado organizacional. A principal contribuição desse trabalho é o modelo conceitual parcialmente validado o qual pode ser utilizado para transformar o sistema de indicadores de desempenho em fonte de informações para a tomada de decisão através da quantificação das relações de causa-e-efeito. / Performance metrics have a fundamental role in organizations, because they show to decision makers the situation of the organization in relation to its objectives. Most of the metrics systems used have financial and non-financial indicators, based on the belief that if a non-financial performance is increased, it will cause the same behavior in financial results. On the other hand, there is not a consecrated methodology to test if these relationships (causal relations) exist in the real world. The objective of this paper is to propose and partially validate a methodology to test and quantify the causal relations among performance metrics. A sequence of steps was defined from literature research, using tools from Quality Function Deployment, Policy Deployment, System Dynamics and Tool for Action Planning Selection. The research method chosen was case study. The research unit was an organization that already uses financial and non-financial metrics and has historic data of it. As font of evidences, were used participant observation and structure interviews. Data analysis was made with statistical techniques and written representation. From the results, it can be concluded using the methodology it’s possible to quantify the causal relations between performance metrics. The application of this methodology also contributed the organizations learning. The mainly contribution of this paper is the partially validated conceptual methodology, that can be used to make the performance metric system a information source to decision making, trough the quantification of causal relations.

本研究旨在探討台灣英文教科書與學生英文作文佳作中，敘述文與說明文中的因果關係使用。因為因果關係在閱讀與寫作中很常見，所以對學生來說，學會如何正確使用因果關係是件極為重要的事。根據李(2003)的研究，她發現因果關係對學生來說是最難學好的因果關係。因此，本研究希望能了解教科書中的敘述文與說明文是如何介紹因果關係給學生。同時，本研究亦希望能得知學生如何在不同文體的英文作文中，使用因果關係。 本研究選用三個版本的高中英文教科書來進行研究，之所以選擇此三版本教科書的原因在於，此三個版本在台灣高中英文課本的市占率最高。而又因為敘述文和說明文在學測和指考的英文作文考試中是最常要測驗學生的文體，因此本研究進一步挑選課本中的敘述文和說明文來進行分析與探討。此外，本研究亦研究民國100年到105年的學測、指考英文作文佳作，舉凡是敘述文和說明文中所使用的因果關係都進行分析與探討。 研究結果顯示在三個版本中，敘述文和說明文的分布無明顯差異。此外，本文發現年級越高的高中生會接觸到愈多的敘述文，但愈少的說明文。研究結果亦顯示文體會影響因果關係的使用情形。相較於敘述文中的因果關係使用，我們發現教科書作者在說明文中使用較多因果關係。 而我們也發現在不同文體中的不同文章結構，因果關係使用的情形不同。在敘述文中，因果關係主要被使用於Complications和Resolutions中。在說明文中，因果關係則主要被使用於Arguments supported by evidence 和Summing up the position中。除此之外，本文亦發現在四類因果連接詞中，Reason和Result這兩類的因果連接詞最常被使用於敘述文和說明文中。 為了清楚看出因果關係，本文針對包含因果關係的句子皆進行了句法、時間及邏輯順序的分析。結果發現幾乎所有因果關係中的時間順序皆與邏輯順序一致。同時，本文亦歸納出教科書中的因果關係的七種使用形式，並提供教科書中的例句來進行討論。 最後，透過學生英文作文佳作的分析，我們發現在因果關係的使用量方面，這群學生與教科書作者相似。而本研究亦歸納出學生在佳作中的四個因果關係誤用的問題。 希望本研究的發現及所提供的建議可供台灣高中英文科教師、教科書作者以及高中生參考。 / The purpose of the study is to investigate the variations of causal relations in narrations and expositions in Taiwan senior high school's English textbooks, and high performance students’compositions. Since causal relations are common in reading and writing, it is important for students to learn to use it. According to Lee (2003), causal relations are the most difficult logical relations for students to master. The present study wants to know how causal relations are introduced to learners in the narrations and expositions from textbooks. Besides, the present study also wants to know how students use causal relations in different genres of compositions. In the study, three series of textbooks are selected for the examination. These three textbooks were chosen as they are commonly used textbooks in Taiwan senior high schools. The selected texts for examination are the texts of two genres: narration and exposition, for these two genres are frequently tested in College Entrance Exams. Moreover, the causal relations in narrations and expositions among the high-scoring essays in years of 2011 to 2016College Entrance Exams were examined as well. The results showed that three series of textbooks in have no significant differences in the distributions of narrations and expositions. Besides, senior high school students expose more narrations but fewer expositions in the higher grades. Furthermore, the result revealed that genres do influence the uses of causal relations, for expositions in the textbooks applied more causal relations than the narrations in the textbooks. Moreover, different usages among different text organizations in both narrations and expositions were found. In the text organizations of narrations, causal relations were mainly used in complications and resolutions.In the text organizations of expositions, causal relations were mainly used in Arguments supported by evidence and Summing up the position. The types of causal relations which are frequently used in textbooks were also found as well. The results showed that Reason and Result type of causal logical connectors were mainly used in both narrations and expositions. Analyses of casual relations’sequences were conducted to clearly see the syntactic sequences, temporal sequences, and logical sequences of the sentences with causal relations. It was found that almost all the causal relations in the textbooks had the temporal sequences equaled to the logical sequences. Moreover, six usages of causal logical connectors were categorized and presented with example sentences. Last but not least, through the analyses of causal relations in students’high-scoring essays, the result showed that high performance students used the similar amounts of causal relations in their compositions with the textbooks’ writers. The present study also categorizes the errors of misusing the causal relations into four problems. It is hoped that this study can provide insights for the senior high school English teachers, textbook publishers, and students to follow.

Modern science is turning to progressively more complex and data-rich subjects, which challenges the existing methods of data analysis and interpretation. Consequently, there is a pressing need for development of ever more powerful methods of extracting order from complex data and for automation of all steps of the scientific process. Virtual Scientist is a set of computational procedures that automate the method of inductive inference to derive a theory from observational data dominated by nonlinear regularities. The procedures utilize SINBAD – a novel computational method of nonlinear factor analysis that is based on the principle of maximization of mutual information among non-overlapping sources (Imax), yielding higherorder features of the data that reveal hidden causal factors controlling the observed phenomena. One major advantage of this approach is that it is not dependent on a particular choice of learning algorithm to use for the computations. The procedures build a theory of the studied subject by finding inferentially useful hidden factors, learning interdependencies among its variables, reconstructing its functional organization, and describing it by a concise graph of inferential relations among its variables. The graph is a quantitative model of the studied subject, capable of performing elaborate deductive inferences and explaining behaviors of the observed variables by behaviors of other such variables and discovered hidden factors. The set of Virtual Scientist procedures is a powerful analytical and theory-building tool designed to be used in research of complex scientific problems characterized by multivariate and nonlinear relations.

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[pt] Mecanismos são essencialmente (mas não exclusivamente) compostos por vários corpos rígidos que possuem movimento relativo entre si. Cada corpo rígido está ligado através de uma junta a um ou mais corpos, sendo a sequência de corpos conectados chamada de cadeia cinemática. Cadeias cinemáticas abertas (ou em série) não têm restrições sobre uma de suas extremidades, já cadeias fechadas (ou paralelas) têm restrições em ambas as extremidades. O foco neste trabalho será dado no estudo de mecanismos com cadeias cinemáticas fechadas ou mecanismos paralelos. Assim, este trabalho apresenta a determinação da solução analítica do modelo dinâmico de um mecanismo paralelo plano com três graus de liberdade através da caracterização do fluxo de potência entre os seus componentes. A partir das relações geométricas associadas ao deslocamento dos seus graus de liberdade, as relações cinemáticas associadas às suas velocidades são determinadas. Considerando o fluxo de potência entre os graus de liberdade, e também entre estes e os elementos de atuação (atuadores lineares elétricos), as relações de equilíbrio das forças e torques são obtidas. Levando em consideração os efeitos inerciais dos componentes do sistema, a rigidez e efeitos de amortecimento, as equações de movimento ou as equações de estado são analiticamente determinadas e representadas em qualquer sistema de referência, local ou global. Além disso, as relações entre a cinemática inversa e a dinâmica direta são apresentadas. Esta abordagem adota os mesmos fundamentos, conceitos e elementos da técnica dos grafos de ligação, com a sua notação simbólica e representação gráfica. A metodologia proposta é generalizada e aplicável em qualquer tipo de mecanismo (aberto ou fechado, plano ou espacial). O modelo cinemático inverso do mecanismo de cadeia fechada, que tem uma solução fácil quando comparado com o modelo direto, pode ser desenvolvido por qualquer metodologia conhecida. Neste trabalho, a técnica da cadeia vetorial é usada para determinar o modelo geométrico inverso, e com a sua derivação, as relações cinemáticas são obtidas, e, portanto, a matriz Jacobiana inversa. Desse modo, é construída a estrutura em grafos de ligação da cinemática inversa e, a partir das relações de causa e efeito, encontra-se o modelo dinâmico direto do mecanismo. Assim, esta metodologia (grafos de ligação ou fluxo de potência) é mais eficiente e segura para determinar os modelos dinâmicos analíticos (fechados) de mecanismos paralelos. Um conjunto de simulações foi realizado para validar esta abordagem, usando os dados reais (geometria, inércia, amortecimento, forças de atuação, etc.) a partir de um mecanismo plano projetado e construído especialmente para a finalidade de comparar os resultados simulados e experimentais. Uma estratégia de controle de malha fechada usando a cinemática inversa e os modelos dinâmicos diretos é proposta. Finalmente, testes experimentais validam esta estratégia. As equações analíticas levam a um processo de simulação e controle em tempo real mais eficientes destes sistemas. / [en] Mechanisms are essentially (but not exclusively) made up of multiple rigid bodies that have relative motion between themselves. Each rigid body is connected through a joint to one or more bodies, wherein the sequence of connected bodies is called kinematic chain. Open (or serial) kinematic chains have no restrictions on one of their ends, as closed (or parallel) chains have restrictions on both ends. The focus in this work will be given on the study of mechanisms with closed kinematic chains or parallel mechanisms. Thus, this work presents the analytical form determination of the dynamic model of a parallel planar mechanism with three degrees of freedom through the characterization of the power flow between its components. From the geometrical relations associated to the displacement of their degrees of freedom, the kinematic relations associated to their speeds are determined. Considering the power flow between the degrees of freedom, and also between these and the actuating elements (linear electric actuators) the equilibrium relations of the forces and torques are obtained. Accounting for inertial effects of system components, the stiffness and damping effects, the equations of motion or the state equations are analytically determined and represented in any reference frame, local or global. Besides, the relation between the inverse kinematics and the direct dynamics is presented. This approach adopts the same fundamentals, concepts and elements of the Bond Graph Technique, with its symbolic notation and graphical representation. The proposed methodology is generalized and applicable in any type of mechanism (open or closed, planar or spatial). The inverse kinematic model of the closed chain mechanism, which has easy solution when compared to the direct model, can be developed by any known methodology. In this work, the vector loop technique is used to determine the inverse geometric model, and with its derivation, the kinematic relations are obtained, and therefore the inverse Jacobian matrix. Thereby, the inverse kinematics bond graph is built and, from the cause and effect relations, the direct dynamic model of the mechanism is found. Thus, this methodology (bond graphs or power flow) is more efficient and secure to achieve the dynamic analytical (closed) models of parallel mechanisms. A set of simulations are performed to validate this approach, using the real data (geometry, inertia, damping, actuators forces, etc.) from a planar mechanism designed and built especially for the purpose to compare the simulated and experimental results. A closed-loop control strategy using the inverse kinematic and the direct dynamic models is proposed. Finally, experimental tests validate this strategy. The analytical equations lead to a more efficient simulation process and real-time control of these systems.