Attention is one of the pivotal research subjects in psychological science. Its major function is to select relevant information from the sensory streams and suppress distracting information. As the capacity of the brain is limited, a task-oriented selection of input is a crucial feature of cognition, promoting efficient behavior. Early approaches of attentional systems thus focused on this to a high degree passive perceptual filtering aspect of attention. Most influential is for example Broadbent's model (1958), assuming that relevant information is filtered out during early stages of the sensory stream, while ignored information is completely lost. This theory was quickly complemented by Deutsch and Deutsch (1963) with a mechanism for late selection, showing that information can be semantically processed without awareness and later selected according to situational demands. As a hybrid model of early and late selection, Lavie's load theory (1994) addressed two main questions arising from the initial approaches: At which stage of the sensory stream does selection occur and to which extent is ignored information processed. Lavie concluded that under high information load, irrelevant information is suppressed at early stages, whereas under low load, when the brain's capacity is not exhausted, it is processed in depth. Although widely accepted and believed to correspond to the functional properties of cognitive processes, even load-dependent theories do not account for all kinds of attentional phenomena. Especially the complex interactions of affect, memory as well as executive functions, which constitute the variety of attentional processes, make it difficult to develop an integrative framework of attention. This is particularly the case, since conventional approaches to attention still seem to be under the intermediate immersion of the attention solely as a perceptual filter. Inspired by more holistic and integrative approaches by Nelson Cowan and Eric Kandel, who regard attention as a constructive, even creative process this dissertation aims to illuminate the phenomenon of attention from several perspectives. The purpose is to gain insights, which go beyond the results obtained by conventional or so to say conservative 6 paradigms. Four electrophysiological studies are applied to investigate attentional mechanisms and structure along the visual information stream. Study 1 investigates the electrophysiological correlates (ERPs) of automatic allocation gain, reflected by the P1 component, in response to highly salient stimuli, making a case for motivational relevance in attentional processing. Study 2 takes a closer look at said gain processes, investigating frontal alpha asymmetries, which index modulation of striatal reward encoding. Further top-down modulations are the research subject of Study 3, which puts declarative memory into focus. Specifically, the effects of functional network properties of long-term memory encoding self-relevant information on attentional gain mechanism are investigated. As a result, self-referential processing is based on automatic retrieval of personal information as opposed to the processing of unknown persons, which requires voluntary, that is, strategic, attention-demanding processing as indexed by the N170 and the N400 component, respectively. Study 4 investigated the neural efficiency gains related to meditation practice combining multiple object tracking with steady-state visually evoked potentials. The results shed new light on the interaction of attentional focus and visual short- term memory, showing that enhanced distractor resistance profits from attentional de- automatization, thereby increasing capacity limits of visual short-term memory. In the general discussion of this thesis, Cowan's integrated framework of attention provides a reference for evaluating and relating the results in s structured manner in order to overcome the limitations of the perceptual filter approach. An updated version of Cowan’s framework is furthermore proposed, incorporating the new empirical data. Last but not least, new questions, concepts and predictions arising from the model are discussed.

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Psychische Ursachen und Effekte körperlicher Reinigung waren lange Zeit nur ein Randthema psychologischer Forschung. Inspiriert durch die in vielen Religionen und Medien häufig thematisierte metaphorische Verbindung zwischen körperlicher und moralischer Reinheit konnte in den letzten Jahren substantielle empirisch Evidenz für einen tatsächlichen psychologischen Mechanismus gefunden werden. Dabei zeigte sich auch, dass körperliche Reinigung über die Domäne moralischer Selbstbilder und Urteile hinaus bedeutsame Effekte auf psychische Funktionen haben kann. Die vorliegende Arbeit stellt die Entwicklung und den aktuellen Stand dieser Forschungslinie dar. Insbesondere beinhaltet sie fünf empirische Studien, die verschiedene Facetten körperlicher Reinheit mit Blick auf psychische Funktionen untersuchen. In Studie 1 wird erstmalig demonstriert, dass Händewaschen nach einem Misserfolgserlebnis in einer kognitiven Problemlöseaufgabe den Optimismus, zukünftig eine bessere Leistung zeigen zu können, signifikant steigerte, dabei jedoch die tatsächliche spätere Leistung reduzierte. In Studie 2 wird vor dem Hintergrund unterschiedlicher theoretischer Annahmen über die Wirkung von körperlicher Reinigung gezeigt, dass Händewaschen die Tendenz verstärkter stereotyper moralischer Urteile abschwächt und gleichzeitig die Herunterregulierung physiologischer Erregung begünstigt. Dabei wird erstmalig eine Blickbewegungs- und Pupillometrie-Messung im Forschungsfeld durchgeführt, um objektive Indikatoren für Informationsaufnahmeprozesse und physiologische Erregung zu nutzen. In Studie 3 wird demonstriert, wie ausgehend von der Annahme einer modulierten Gewichtung kognitiver Information durch Händewaschen dieses die Gedächtnisleistung für moralische und unmoralische Inhalte zugunsten letzterer verändert. Studie 4 untersucht, wie die aktive Reinigung der Hände sowie die bloße Aktivierung von Reinheitskognitionen die eingeschätzte Wahrscheinlichkeit für zukünftige moralische und unmoralische Handlungen beeinflusst. Schließlich untersucht Studie 5 die potentielle Interaktion zweier haptischer Informationseinflüsse, indem Händereinigen und Gewichtsempfindungen kombiniert werden. Die Ergebnisse der Studien liefern eine Vielzahl neuer Befunde, die einem besseren Verständnis psychologischer Effekte körperlicher Reinheit dienen und insbesondere mit Blick auf das konzeptionelle Rahmenmodell der Embodied Cognition wichtige Erkenntnisse liefern.

The ultimate aim of psychological research is to disentangle everyday human functioning. Achieving this goal has always been limited by the necessity of balancing experimental control and ecological validity. Recent technical advances, however, reduce this trade-off immensely, perhaps even rendering it void: Sophisticated virtual reality (VR) systems provide not only high experimental control but also multidimensional and realistic stimuli, tasks, and experimental setups. Yet prior to applying VR as a standalone experimental method, an empirical foundation for its application needs to be established. To this end, this dissertation aims to shed light on whether and which changes in cognitive-affective standard findings result from increasing the ecological validity by means of VR paradigms. The four empirical studies included in this dissertation focus either on the affective or mnemonic processes and mechanisms occurring under immersive VR conditions compared to conventional laboratory setups. Study 1.1 investigated whether the electrophysiological correlates of the approach/avoidance dimension differ depending on the mode of presentation, i.e., immersive VR footage or a virtual 2D desktop. Study 2 was extended by a behavioral component. Full-body responses were enabled within this paradigm to examine holistic fear responses and to put to the test whether the respective electrophysiological responses translate from keystrokes to natural responses. With respect to the retrieval of such immersive experiences, Study 1.2 aimed to replicate the memory superiority effect found for VR conditions compared to conventional conditions. The generalizability of this effect will be examined using complex, multimodal scenes. Going one step further, Study 3 differentiated the retrieval mechanisms underlying VR-based or conventional laboratory engrams on the electrophysiological level. The well-established theta old/new effect served as a benchmark to check whether cognitive processes obtained under conventional conditions translate to VR conditions. The results of these studies are discussed with respect to whether and how increasing ecological validity alters the standard findings expected on the basis of the previous research background. Special attention will be paid to the differences between conventional laboratory setups and sophisticated VR setups with the aim to identify possible sources of the obtained deviations from standard findings. Such changes in the findings that overlap and exceed all studies beyond their primary focus, whether emotional or mnemonic, are discussed in terms of embodied simulations and the predictive coding hypothesis. A shared mental 3D default space is proposed as a possible source of fundamental differences between conventional and VR-based research outcomes. In particular, it will be demonstrated that conventional research approaches and findings may not only be amplified but fundamentally altered when translated to VR paradigms.

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Using action orientation after failure as a measure of individual differences in emotion regulation abilities (ERA), this thesis’ studies investigated the impact of ERA on cognition, behavior, and own versus imposed goals differentiation. The first study used cortisol as a physiological stress marker to replicate the link between ERA and the ability to make intuitive judgments under stress. High ERA were associated with increased performance in an intuition task under stress. In contrast, when feeling no stress, low ERA were associated with increased performance in an intuition task. The second study showed that ERA can compensate for depression-associated biased processing of negative stimuli. This effect was present even at mild to moderate depression levels. Replicating earlier findings, the third study showed that ERA are associated with an increased ability to distinguish self-chosen from imposed goals. Most importantly, the study identified activation in the right medial prefrontal cortex as a neural correlate of identifying self-chosen goals, and activation in the anterior cingulate cortex, as a correlate of falsely identifying imposed goals as self-chosen ones. Altogether, these studies show the necessity to consider individual differences in ERA in stress, clinical, and motivational research. The findings are discussed with respect to three theories that relate to motivation and personality from behavioral and neurobiological perspectives, namely, Personality Systems Interaction Theory, Predictive and Reactive Control Systems Theory, and Self-Determination Theory.

Vor dem Hintergrund der PSI-Theorie werden Fragen der Vorhersage von Leistung entwickelt. Neben einer kurzen Darstellung der Theorie werden zunächst zur Methodenexploration in 4 Experimenten im Stroop-Paradigma Fragen der Grundlagenforschung zum Stroop-Interferenz-Reduktions-Effekt (SIRE) durch nonverbale emotionale Primes beantwortet. In 3 weiteren Studien konnte gezeigt werden, dass Leistung mit der Interaktion aus Selbststeuerung insbesondere der Komponente Zielumsetzung und dem nichtreaktiven Maß der Stroop-Interferenz nach Leistungsprimes vorhergesagt werden kann. Es scheint Hinweise auf eine gewisse Gesetzmäßigkeit dieser Interaktion zu geben. Bei der Leistungsvorhersage wird eine invers sinusförmig verlaufende Charakteristik der Interaktion vermutet, die in 3 Studentenstichproben zum Problemlösen, zur Klausurleistung sowie zum Fortschritt bei Leistungszielen während eines Semesters untersucht werden konnte. Die wesentlichen Erkenntnisse der Vorhersage aus reaktiven Maßen (Selbststeuerung, insbesondere Willensbahnung) und nichtreaktiven Maßen (Intentionsgedächtnisnutzung) werden dargestellt. Implikationen für die Anwendung gehen in Richtung größerer Studien zur Erforschung dieser prädiktiven Interaktion. Dieses Muster ist relevant für die Anwendungswissenschaften Klinische Psychologie als auch die Arbeitspsychologie i.S. von persönlichkeitsfördernder Gestaltung der Arbeit.

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