This dissertation presents three studies that examined the effects of diverse cultural backgrounds on maternal socialization strategies and how these were related to the development of their pre-school aged children. Specifically, the investigations focused on mother-child discourses about past events when children were three and four years of age. The present work systematically applied the ecocultural approach by investigating relatively homogenous samples, which were selected based on population parameters and sociodemographic characteristics. These sociocultural contexts represented three different cultural models: (1) the model of psychological autonomy (urban middle-class families from Western societies), (2) the model of relational adaptation (rural farming families from no-Western societies), and (3) the model of autonomy-relatedness (urban middle-class families from non-Western societies). We could demonstrate that the three cultural models manifest in mother-child reminiscing: both, how mothers and children reminisced -the structure- and what they talked about -the content. Mothers of the psychological autonomous contexts structured conversations with many elaborations and evaluations in order to actively involve the child to participate. On the content level, conversations were child-centered, with many child references and talk about personal judgments and opinions. Consequently, children were more expressive and self-centered in these contexts. Thus, conversations mirror the socialization strategy and social roles associated with the cultural model of psychological autonomy: The mother treats the child as a quasi-equal interlocutor and reinforces the child to express her- or himself. Mothers of relational adapted contexts structured conversations rather rigidly by using many repetitions, and few elaborations and evaluations. On the content level, they focused more on social contexts than on the child compared to the autonomous contexts. Accordingly, children contributed less information to conversations and showed a greater focus on social contexts. Thus, conversations mirror the socialization strategy and social roles associated with the cultural model of relational adaptation: The mother is the expert and the child the adaptive apprentice. There was greater heterogeneity for conversational structure and content of mothers and children from autonomous-related contexts. However, overall they mirrored the hybrid orientation in their cultural emphases. The different reminiscing styles and thematic foci were thus meaningful within the different sociocultural environments and fostered children’s cultural development of becoming a competent societal member. Furthermore, we could also demonstrate variations within the elaborative style of mothers all valuing autonomy. Thus, when looking at more specific categories, differences also existed among cultural contexts with the same cultural model. Children’s internalization of the respective cultural orientation was also mirrored in another, adult independent task we conducted: children’s self-drawings. Children of autonomous contexts drew themselves bigger -pronounced and space-demanding- whereas children of the relational contexts drew themselves smaller -mirroring greater self-effacement. Drawings of children from the autonomous-related contexts were intermediate in size. Correlation patterns among maternal and child variables varied across the different cultural contexts. Thus, the studies support the notion that psychological processes have to be considered and interpreted in relation to the sociocultural context in which they unfold. This refers to level-oriented (mean differences) as well as functional (correlation based) analyses: Becoming a competent member of a specific cultural context requires very different skills within universal domains, such as mother-child discourse. Additionally, in this process the effect of socialization strategies on the adults’ part may vary across different sociocultural contexts. Results are also discussed in light of practical implications for culture sensitive intervention programs.

This dissertation presents three studies that focus on cultural variation of parenting beliefs within Germany. Countries are often misleadingly taken as cultural units. However, the studies were based on a concept of culture that regards eco-social contexts (i.e., ecological conditions as well as individual characteristics) as the source of specific socio-cultural orientations. These socio-cultural orientations, the so-called cultural models, manifest in individuals’ parenting beliefs and hence can be differentiated across cultural groups. As an important part of parenting beliefs, socialization goals are in the focus of this dissertation. Through socialization goals, parents and other caregivers specify how they want (their) children to be like, that is, the characteristics, qualities, and behaviors that explicitly and implicitly serve as desired developmental endpoints and guide parenting behavior. The cultural variations that are considered in this dissertation concern cultural groups deriving from socio-historical change and migration. Both are regarded as changing individuals’ eco-social context conditions and therefore contribute to the cultural plurality within Germany. More specifically, study 1 addressed similarities and differences in East and West German young adults’ parenting beliefs. Socialization goal preferences of Turkish and Former Soviet Union (FSU) migrant as well as non-migrant mothers were contrasted with early childcare teachers’ preferences in study 2. Furthermore, measurement equivalence of a socialization goal questionnaire was tested across non-migrant, Turkish, and FSU migrant mothers in study 3. As the first study indicated, young adults with East and West German origin did not differ regarding socialization goal preferences but in their intended use of early childcare. Study 2 showed that migrant mothers’ socialization goal preferences were less similar to their children’s preschool teachers than non-migrant mothers’. Though, they were nonetheless as satisfied with the childcare arrangement as the non-migrant mothers. Finally, the two-factor structure of the socialization goal questionnaire was confirmed at the level of metric invariance. However, both factors were differently related to each other across Turkish, FSU, and non-migrant mothers (study 3). Taken together, the results yielded congruent and divergent parenting beliefs across the cultural groups that were included in the three studies. The cultural models that could be inferred from the studies overlapped regarding the importance of pro-social socialization goals, which were unanimously emphasized by mothers, adults, and teachers regardless of their respective cultural background. On the other hand, obedience-related socialization goals revealed culture-specific preferences in case of the migrant and non-migrant caregivers. Altogether, the studies confirmed the currently existing cultural variation of parenting beliefs in Germany due to socio-historical change and migration processes. They point out scientific and practical implications (i.e., regarding instrument development in study 3 and the parent-teacher relationship in study 2).

Within the framework of this thesis, three studies are presented that investigated cultural similarities and differences of preschool aged children’s self- and family-drawings. The research was guided by the assumption that besides the basic structure of the drawing, specific drawing characteristics would vary cross-culturally, according to differences in cultural models and the associated understanding of self and others. Based on an ecocultural approach, families were systematically selected from diverse cultural contexts across and within national boundaries, representing three different cultural models: (1) the cultural model of psychological autonomy (characteristic for Western urban middle-class contexts), (2) the cultural model of hierarchical relatedness (representative for non-Western rural traditional contexts), and (3) mixed cultural models of autonomous relatedness (e.g., non-Western urban middle-class contexts, migration contexts). The participating children were of similar age, gender distribution, and had reached comparable structural levels of human figure drawings. Overall, the studies revealed three main findings. First, it could be confirmed that there are basic similarities in children’s graphic development. In line with previous reports, the studies demonstrated that the structural composition of the human figure as well as production principles did not differ significantly across cultures. Second, several content-based drawing features varied with cultural context and the associated cultural model. In particular, figure size, the facial depiction, and gender-specific characteristics could be linked to the culturally shaped understanding of self and others in the respective cultural context. Third, it was shown that the composition of children’s family-drawings corresponded to the structure of families in the particular cultural context, mainly with regard to number and position of family members, figure size- and gender-differentiation. The results are discussed with a focus on the role of general and culture-specific drawing characteristics in preschool aged children’s drawings of self and family. Based on these and former research findings, an integrative framework of children’s self- and family-drawings is proposed in order to shed light on the origin and relationship of the investigated drawing characteristics. Open research questions are pointed out, as well as limitations and practical implications of the study results.

This thesis investigated comparatively declarative memory in infants and children from two different cultural groups. Applying three different memory tasks, memory was assessed in rural Cameroonian Nso children and children from middle-class German families. Everyday concepts of memory were also investigated in both cultural groups. Study 1 implemented an adapted Western deferred imitation paradigm with nine-month-old infants. Study 2 applied an adapted Western face-recognition task to four-year-old children. Study 3 investigated mothers’ everyday concept of memory in children and developed and applied a memory task (shop task) based on the Nso concept of memory to four-year-old children. All three memory tasks were adapted with regard to different methodological aspects. The results revealed that memory performance varies with the familiarity and meaningfulness of the implemented task and assessment method. The middle-class German children demonstrated an advantage in Western-based memory tasks (Study 1 and Study 2) while the Nso children showed a tendency to outperform the middle-class German children in a task considered more meaningful for the Nso community. The results are discussed with regard to adaptation procedures in memory assessments. A new theoretical framework, the cultural model of memory, is introduced to shed further light on the “what” and “how” of cultural memory processes. Finally, practical implications for memory assessments are presented to facilitate the study of memory in a cultural context.

In dieser prospektiven Längsschnittstudie wird das Wohlbefinden von Eltern sowie das mögliche Auftreten von kindlichen bzw. familiären Regulationsschwierigkeiten in der Übergangsphase zur Erstelternschaft betrachtet. Während des ersten Erhebungszeitpunktes wurden mehrere Wohlbefindensmaße erhoben. Des Weiteren wurden elterliche Vorstellungen hinsichtlich des eigenen Interaktionsverhaltens mit dem Säugling, des erwarteten Interaktionsverhaltens vom Partner, des erinnerten Interaktionsverhaltens in der Herkunftsfamilie sowie des jeweiligen Interaktionsverhaltensideals erfragt. Zum zweiten Erhebungszeitpunkt wurde neben den Wohlbefindensmaßen auch das Verhalten des Kindes erfasst. Zusätzlich wurden Videosequenzen von Mutter-Kind- und Vater-Kind-Interaktionen aufgenommen sowie hinsichtlich der gezeigten Interaktionsabstimmung ausgewertet. Zum einen zeigte sich, dass die Wohlbefindensbereiche zu beiden Zeitpunkten in weiten Teilen zusammenhingen. Zum anderen erwiesen sich weniger Streit in der Partnerschaft, eine erhöhte elterliche Sensibilität sowie die Fähigkeit die Interaktionsvorstellungen des Partners gut einschätzen zu können als prädiktiv für eine gute Interaktionsabstimmung mit dem Säugling. Auch zeigte sich, dass in den Familien, in denen sich für beide Partner relativ geringe Abweichungen zwischen ihren Interaktionsideen und ihren Idealvorstellungen zeigten, Über weniger Regulationsschwierigkeiten bei den Kindern berichtet wurde. Für die Mütter kam der erlebten Zärtlichkeit mit dem Partner ebenfalls eine prädiktive Bedeutung zu. Überraschend ergab sich, dass das Wohlbefinden der Eltern in keinem bedeutenden Ausmaß mit der Abwesenheit von kindlichen Regulationsschwierigkeiten zusammenhing. Teilweise korrelierten diese beiden Aspekte sogar negativ miteinander. Mögliche Gründe und Folgen werden in der Diskussion dargelegt.

In this thesis ethnotheories on the expression of emotional warmth towards babies were studied, considering socio-economic and cultural factors. It was proposed that the more relatedness is emphasized as a socialization goal the more emphasis is also put on the expression of emotional warmth. Furthermore, the modality, in which emotional warmth is perceived to be ideally expressed, was expected to be related to the extent the participants want to foster autonomy. Autonomy-fostering caregivers were expected to stress distal modes of expressing emotional warmth more, than less autonomy-fostering caregivers. These two hypotheses were tested with mothers (and grandmothers) of three-month-old children from Germany, USA, urban and rural India. The hypotheses were predominantly confirmed, though some methodological issues are reasons for concern. The applicability of the (Western) psychological theories on the expression of emotional warmth towards infants perceived by Indian caregivers was explored. The Indian caregivers ethnotheories matched the psychological theories fairly well. However, other concepts were also mentioned frequently. Therefore open-ended methods were used to study the indigenous concept of the Evil Eye . Some rural Indian mothers considered looking at the baby while breastfeeding, or praising the baby as a potential danger. Finally, the different caregivers roles as perceived by urban Indian mothers and rural Indian mothers and grandmothers were explored. The mother was seen as the most important caregiver for the expression of warmth towards an infant, though rural and urban caregivers disagreed about the reasons for her being special. Other (unspecified) family members were mentioned frequently. Fathers were perceived in different roles by urban and rural mothers, though they agreed on them being providers of vocal or verbal stimulation for the child. The mothers regarded the grandmothers as a source of advice and support in child-rearing matters.

Early mother-infant interactions are influenced by the eco-cultural context within which they take place and impact the infant´s development of socio-emotional competences. The genetically open programs of the attachment system enable a child within the limits of the system to adapt to varying eco-cultural contexts. This study focuses on the cultural aspects of attachment among the Cameroonian Nso, a prototypical interdependent cultural group very distinct from Western cultures. 32 Nso families with one-year old infants were visited twice by a German / Cameroonian female stranger respectively, who greeted family, mother and child and interacted with the child for five minutes. The visiting scenes were videotaped and the child s reactions were coded with respect to emotional reaction, closeness with mother, signs of avoidance or approach towards the stranger. Additionally, the mothers were interviewed on attachment topics. Results for the greeting scenes show three distinct reaction patterns, independent of whether the stranger was a German or Cameroonian woman. Children reacted predominantly fearful, curious or unemotional. Results are discussed by drawing on information gathered through the interviews which suggest that calm, non-distressed children are highly valued in the Nso ethnicity and that mothers deliberately use frightening behavior as a means of education. From a western point of view, maternal frightening behavior is considered to be responsible for the development of disorganization; The results suggest that within the cultural context of the Nso, however, typical reactions traditionally associated with disorganization like freezing and impassiveness need to be (re-)interpreted according to the eco-cultural context.

Arbeitsgedächtnisdefizite lernbehinderter Kinder sind bisher vor allem im phonologischen Bereich nachgewiesen worden. Die eigene Studie untersucht mögliche Defizite im Bereich der zentralen Exekutive mit zwei Schwerpunkten: (a) Lassen sich bei der Steuerung selektiver Aufmerksamkeit spezifische Defizite Lernbehinderter identifizieren? (b) Zeigen sich Besonderheiten in den Alterszugewinnen selektiver Aufmerksamkeit? In der Untersuchung wurden Grundschulkinder gleichen mentalen und gleichen chronologischen Alters mit einer Gruppe lernbehinderter Kinder einer vierten Klasse verglichen. Zusätzlich wurden ältere Schulkinder (7. Klasse, 4. Klasse, 7. Klasse einer Sonderschule L) einbezogen, so dass auch prüfbar wird, inwiefern sich Alterszugewinne der kognitiven Funktionen bei lernbehinderten im Vergleich zu unauffälligen Schülern unterscheiden. Einbezogen wurden nur L-Schüler mit einem IQ < 85. Zur Erfassung der zentral-exekutiven selektiven Aufmerksamkeit wurden drei verschiedene Aufgabenanforderungen (TAP, Stopp-Signal, TEZEK) gewählt. Die Befunde deuten auf ein frühes Funktionsdefizit der lernbehinderten Kinder hin, das bis 14 Jahre weitgehend kompensiert werden kann.

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