La transplantation demeure le traitement de choix de l’insuffisance cardiaque (IC) et ce malgré les récents progrès des techniques de support d’assistance mécanique. Une amélioration considérable de la prévention et du traitement du rejet aigu a été réalisée ces 20 dernières années. Cependant, le succès à long terme des transplantations d’organes a été peu modifié : il est toujours compromis par la survenue d'une dysfonction chronique du greffon. Ainsi, l'avenir des transplantés cardiaques demeure sombre et représente un fardeau médical avec un impact socioéconomique important. Toutefois, la recherche a récemment mis en avant l'énorme potentiel de régénération des cellules souches (CS) et représenterait une nouvelle avenue thérapeutique pour les patients souffrant d’IC. Une meilleure compréhension des processus biologiques des CS et de leur interaction avec le cœur transplanté, permettrait d’exploiter pleinement leur potentiel de réparation cardiaque. Le but de cette thèse est d’explorer les différents aspects du traitement de l’IC en 2020. Les hypothèses proposées dans cette thèse sont les suivantes : (1) les excellents résultats obtenus (>20 ans de survie) chez près d’1/3 des patients greffés lors de la 1ère décade de notre expérience à ICM serait difficile à obtenir de nos jours à la vue de l’évolution d’une population plus malade et plus âgée; (2) le cœur artificiel total (CAT) temporaire Syncardia permet d’amener des patients en insuffisance cardiaque terminale à la greffe de façon satisfaisante; (3) la thérapie cellulaire, plus spécifiquement les CS d’origine adipeuse (ASC) sous forme sphéroïdes, permet de diminuer l’impact de la vasculopathie du greffon cardiaque; et (4) l’effet paracrine des ASC permet une diminution de l’inflammation dans un modèle expérimental de péritonite chez le rat. / Transplantation remains the preferred treatment for heart failure (HF) despite recent advances in mechanical support devices. A considerable improvement in the prevention and treatment of acute rejection has been achieved over the past 20 years. However, the long-term survival of organ transplants has not been changed: it is still compromised by the occurrence of chronic graft dysfunction. Thus, the future of cardiac transplant patients remains bleak and represents a medical burden with a significant socio-economic impact. However, research has recently highlighted the potential for regeneration of stem cells (SC) and would represent a new therapeutic avenue for patients with HF. A better understanding of the biological processes of SC and their interaction with the transplanted heart would allow them to fully exploit their cardiac repair potential. The aim of this thesis is to explore the various aspects of the treatment of HF in 2020. The hypotheses proposed in this thesis are as follows: (1) the excellent results obtained (> 20 years of survival) in almost 1/3 of the patients transplanted during the 1st decade of our experience at ICM would be difficult to obtain from our days at the sight of the evolution of a sicker and older population; (2) the temporary Syncardia total artificial heart (CAT) allows patients with end-stage heart failure to be transplanted satisfactorily; (3) cell therapy, more specifically CS of adipose origin (ASC) cultured as spheroid, reduce the impact of cardiac allograft vasculopathy (CAV); and (4) the paracrine effect of ASCs reduces inflammation in a rat experimental model of peritonitis.

Les infections virales peuvent demeurer latentes pendant plusieurs décennies et se réactiver pendant des périodes d’immunosuppression. Les receveurs de greffes hématopoïétiques sont particulièrement susceptibles compte tenu de l’immunosuppression importante qui est nécessaire pour prévenir le rejet ou la maladie du greffon contre l’hôte, souvent pendant des périodes prolongées. La plupart de ces infections ne peuvent pas être traitées avec des médicaments antiviraux, et lorsque c’est possible, les traitements peuvent amener de la résistance. L’injection de cellules T spécifiques contre les virus provenant de donneurs sains est un traitement efficace pour traiter ces infections virales potentiellement mortelles ou les cancers qu’elles causent. Cependant, la persistance de ces cellules est limitée en partie par la stimulation antigénique chronique qui cause l’épuisement des cellules T. En éliminant les membres de la famille de récepteurs orphelins NR4A, qui favorisent l’épuisement et limitent la différenciation en cellules mémoires durables, notre but est de rendre ces cellules transférées plus persistantes et efficaces. Nos données à ce jour montrent que l’élimination du récepteur NR4A3 n’ altère pas la différenciation mémoire ni la production de cytokines effectrices. Cependant, l’absence de NR4A3tend à amener une diminution le l’expression du marqueur d’épuisement Tim-3, ce qui suggère que l’on peut prévenir l’épuisement et ainsi améliorer les thérapies cellulaires en ciblant les membres de la famille des récepteurs NR4A. / Viral infections can lay dormant for decades only to reactivate in periods of immune suppression. Transplant recipients are particularly susceptible to these infections as they require intensive immunosuppression to prevent rejection or graft-versus-host-disease, often for the rest of their life. Most of these infections cannot be treated with currently available antiviral medications and those that do can develop resistance. Virus-specific T cells (VSTs) are a treatment that uses expanded T cells to treat these infections by infusing donor cells into patients with life-threatening viral infections and cancers. However, these cells have a limited lifespan in part due to chronic antigen stimulation causing T cell exhaustion and lack of persistence. By knocking out members of the NR4A family of orphan receptors, which favour exhaustion and limit differentiation into long-lasting memory cells, we aim to make these transferred cells more persistent and effective. NR4A3 knockout did not alter memory differentiation or effector cytokine production but did result in a trend towards decreased expression of the exhaustion marker Tim-3, which indicates that targeting members of this family may improve clinically translatable cellular therapies.

La cardiomyopathie ischémique et l’insuffisance cardiaque (IC) sont deux des principales causes de morbidité et de mortalité dans les pays industrialisés. L’IC représente la condition finale résultant de plusieurs pathologies affectant le myocarde. Au Canada, plus de 400 000 personnes souffrent d’IC. Malgré la grande variété de traitements disponibles pour prendre en charge ces patients à haut risque de mortalité, l’évolution et le pronostic clinique de cette population demeurent sombres. Les thérapies de régénération par transplantation cellulaire représentent de nouvelles approches pour traiter les patients souffrant d’IC. L’impact de cette approche cellulaire et les mécanismes qui sous-tendent l’application de ce nouveau mode de traitement demeurent obscurs. Les hypothèses proposées dans cette thèse sont les suivantes : 1) l’évolution à long terme des patients qui se présentent en IC grave est nettement défavorable malgré les techniques actuelles de revascularisation chirurgicale à cœur battant; 2) la thérapie cellulaire et, plus spécifiquement, l’injection intracoronaire précoce de milieu de culture cellulaire, permet d’améliorer la récupération fonctionnelle du ventricule gauche suite à un infarctus aigu du myocarde; et 3) la mobilisation de l’axe cœur-moelle osseuse constitue un mécanisme de réponse important lors de la survenue d’un événement ischémique chronique affectant le myocarde. / Congestive heart failure (CHF) remains a leading cause of mortality in the developed world. There are more than 400,000 diagnosed cases of this pathology in Canada. Despite the numerous treatment options available for patients presenting with left ventricular dysfunction, the evolution of this population is still dismal. Stem cell transplantation is a potential approach to repopulate the injured myocardium, to treat heart failure, and to restore cardiac function. However, the exact mechanisms underlying the beneficial effects of this approach remain to be elucidated. The hypotheses of this thesis are the following: 1) the long-term evolution of patients undergoing coronary artery bypass graft surgery is still poor, even when considering the use of new innovative surgical strategies such as off-pump coronary revascularization; 2) the intracoronary injection of concentrated biologically active factors secreted by stem cells can achieve early protection of the ischemic myocardium and preserve heart function; and 3) the bone marrow/heart interaction in a critical axis is involved in chronic myocardial repair following persistent ischemic injury.

Metastatic breast cancer treatment has seen few advances in recent years, yet treatment resistance continues to rise, causing disease recurrence. A pilot study was performed to determine the efficacy of ex vivo expansion and reprogramming of tumor-reactive immune cells from experimental metastatic tumor-sensitized mice. Also, phenotypic changes in tumors due to metastasis or tumor microenvironment influences were characterized. Metastatic neu+ mouse mammary carcinoma (mMMC) and its distant relapsing neu-antigen-negative variant (mANV) were investigated in FVBN202 mice. Tumor-reactive central memory CD8+ T cells and activated NK/NKT cells were successfully reprogrammed and expanded during 6-day expansion from mMMC- and/or mANV-sensitized mice, resulting in tumor-specific cytotoxicity. mMMC exhibited a flexible neu-expression pattern and acquired stem-like, tumorigenic phenotype following metastasis while mANV remained stable except decreased tumorigenicity. Myeloid-derived suppressor cell (MDSC) levels were not increased. Adoptive cellular therapy (ACT) with reprogrammed tumor-reactive immune cells may prove effective prophylaxis against metastatic or recurrent breast cancer.

La cardiomyopathie ischémique et l’insuffisance cardiaque (IC) sont deux des principales causes de morbidité et de mortalité dans les pays industrialisés. L’IC représente la condition finale résultant de plusieurs pathologies affectant le myocarde. Au Canada, plus de 400 000 personnes souffrent d’IC. Malgré la grande variété de traitements disponibles pour prendre en charge ces patients à haut risque de mortalité, l’évolution et le pronostic clinique de cette population demeurent sombres. Les thérapies de régénération par transplantation cellulaire représentent de nouvelles approches pour traiter les patients souffrant d’IC. L’impact de cette approche cellulaire et les mécanismes qui sous-tendent l’application de ce nouveau mode de traitement demeurent obscurs. Les hypothèses proposées dans cette thèse sont les suivantes : 1) l’évolution à long terme des patients qui se présentent en IC grave est nettement défavorable malgré les techniques actuelles de revascularisation chirurgicale à cœur battant; 2) la thérapie cellulaire et, plus spécifiquement, l’injection intracoronaire précoce de milieu de culture cellulaire, permet d’améliorer la récupération fonctionnelle du ventricule gauche suite à un infarctus aigu du myocarde; et 3) la mobilisation de l’axe cœur-moelle osseuse constitue un mécanisme de réponse important lors de la survenue d’un événement ischémique chronique affectant le myocarde. / Congestive heart failure (CHF) remains a leading cause of mortality in the developed world. There are more than 400,000 diagnosed cases of this pathology in Canada. Despite the numerous treatment options available for patients presenting with left ventricular dysfunction, the evolution of this population is still dismal. Stem cell transplantation is a potential approach to repopulate the injured myocardium, to treat heart failure, and to restore cardiac function. However, the exact mechanisms underlying the beneficial effects of this approach remain to be elucidated. The hypotheses of this thesis are the following: 1) the long-term evolution of patients undergoing coronary artery bypass graft surgery is still poor, even when considering the use of new innovative surgical strategies such as off-pump coronary revascularization; 2) the intracoronary injection of concentrated biologically active factors secreted by stem cells can achieve early protection of the ischemic myocardium and preserve heart function; and 3) the bone marrow/heart interaction in a critical axis is involved in chronic myocardial repair following persistent ischemic injury.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / In the US, more than 1 million burn injuries are reported annually. About 45,000 injuries due to fires and burns result in hospitalization and ten percent of these result in death every year. Advances in burn treatment have led to a reduction in mortality rate over the last decades. Since more patients are surviving the initial resuscitation phase even with very large areas of skin being burned away, wound care has become increasingly important to ensure continued patient survival and improvement. While currently a common treatment for third degree burn wounds, skin grafts have several drawbacks. The availability of donor sites for autografts may be limited, especially in incidences of extensive skin loss. The rejection associated with the use of allografts and xenografts may render them inadequate or undesirable. Even if a suitable graft is found, poor retention due to infection, hematoma, and low vascularity at the recipient site are other drawbacks associated with the use of skin grafts as a primary treatment for severe burn wounds. As such, research has been done into alternative treatments, which include but are not limited to artificial skin, cell therapy, and growth factor application. We propose the delivery of adipose derived stem cells (ASC) in combination with endothelial progenitor cells (EC) via Integra Dermal Regenerative Template (DRT) to promote faster graft vascularization and thus faster healing of wounds. Integra DRT is an acellular skin substitute that consists of a dermal layer composed of bovine collagen and chondroitin-6-sulfate glycosaminoglycan, and an "epidermal" layer, which consists of silicone polymer. This silicone layer is removed after the collagen matrix is adequately vascularized (usually takes 2-3 weeks), and then a thin layer autograft is applied to the top of the neo-dermis. ASC are derived from the stromal-vascular fraction (SVF) of adipose tissue and are a readily available, pluripotent, mesenchymal cell known to promote angiogenesis. They are being explored as a treatment for a myriad of diseases and conditions, including wound healing. In combination with ECs, they form stable microvessel networks in vitro and in vivo. In our work, we found that ASC+EC form stable microvessel networks when cultured on Integra DRT. Also, ASC and ASC+EC conditioned media promoted both survival and migration of human epidermal keratinocytes compared to control medium. In a full thickness wound healing model, using healthy NSG mice, the ASC+EC case showed a significantly higher rate of wound closure compared to control. Based on best linear unbiased estimates (BLUE), the difference between the healing rates of ASC alone treatment and the Control treatment group is -0.45 +/- 0.22 mm²/day (p=0.041), which is not less than 0.025 and thus not statistically significant (Bonferroni Adjusted). However, the BLUE for the difference between the ASC+EC group and the Control group healing rates is -0.55 +/- 0.28 mm²/day (p = 0.017<0.025, Bonferroni Adjusted), which is statistically significant. Histology revealed a significantly higher number of vessels compared to control in both ASC alone and ASC+EC case. CD31 staining revealed the presence of human vessels in ASC+EC treatment scaffolds. We conclude that the combination of ASC and EC can be used to accelerate healing of full-thickness wounds when delivered to site of the wound via Integra. This result is especially compelling due to the fact that the mice used were all healthy. Thus our treatment shows an improvement in healing rate even compared to normal wound healing.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / The inner ear contains specialized sensory epithelia that detect head movements, gravity and sound. Hearing loss and imbalance are primarily caused by degeneration of the mechanosensitive hair cells in sensory epithelia or the sensory neurons that connect the inner ear to the brain. The controlled derivation of inner ear sensory epithelia and neurons from pluripotent stem cells will be essential for generating in vitro models of inner ear disorders or developing cell-based therapies. Despite some recent success in deriving hair cells from mouse embryonic stem (ES) cells, it is currently unclear how to derive inner ear sensory cells in a fully defined and reproducible manner. Progress has likely been hindered by what is known about induction of the nonneural and preplacodal ectoderm, two critical precursors during inner ear development. The studies presented here report the step-wise differentiation of inner ear sensory epithelia from mouse ES cells in three-dimensional culture. We show that nonneural, preplacodal and pre-otic epithelia can be generated from ES cell aggregates by precise temporal control of BMP, TGFβ and FGF signaling, mimicking in vivo development. Later, in a self-guided process, vesicles containing supporting cells emerge from the presumptive otic epithelium and give rise to hair cells with stereocilia bundles and kinocilium. Remarkably, the vesicles developed into large cysts with sensory epithelia reminiscent of vestibular sense organs (i.e. the utricle, saccule and crista), which sense head movements and gravity in the animal. We have designated these stem cell-derived structures inner ear organoids. In addition, we discovered that sensory-like neurons develop alongside the organoids and form putative synapses with hair cells in a similar fashion to the hair cell-to-neuron circuit that forms in the developing embryo. Our data thus establish a novel in vitro model of inner ear organogenesis that can be used to gain deeper insight into inner ear development and disorder.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Human induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells have the unique ability to differentiate into 200 or so somatic cell types that make up the adult human being. The use of human iPS cells to study development and disease is a highly exciting and interdependent field that holds great promise in understanding and elucidating mechanisms behind cellular differentiation with future applications in drug screening and cell replacement studies for complex and currently incurable cellular degenerative disorders. The recent advent of iPS cell technology allows for the generation of patient-specific cell lines that enable us to model the progression of a disease phenotype in a human in vitro model. Differentiation of iPS cells toward the affected cell type provides an unlimited source of diseased cells for examination, and to further study the developmental progression of the disease in vitro, also called the “disease-in-a-dish” model. In this study, efforts were undertaken to recapitulate the differentiation of distinct retinal cell affected in two highly prevalent retinal diseases, Usher syndrome and glaucoma. Using a line of Type III Usher Syndrome patient derived iPS cells efforts were undertaken to develop such an approach as an effective in vitro model for studies of Usher Syndrome, the most commonly inherited disorder affecting both vision and hearing. Using existing lines of iPS cells, studies were also aimed at differentiation and characterization of the more complex retinal cell types, retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and astrocytes, the cell types affected in glaucoma, a severe neurodegenerative disease of the retina leading to eventual irreversible blindness. Using a previously described protocol, the iPS cells were directed to differentiate toward a retinal fate through a step-wise process that proceeds through all of the major stages of neuroretinal development. The differentiation process was monitored for a period of 70 days for the differentiation of retinal cell types and 150 days for astrocyte development. The different stages of differentiation and the individually derived somatic cell types were characterized by the expression of developmentally associated transcription factors specific to each cell type. Further approaches were undertaken to characterize the morphological differences between RGCs and other neuroretinal cell types derived in the process. The results of this study successfully demonstrated that Usher syndrome patient derived iPS cells differentiated to the affected photoreceptors of Usher syndrome along with other mature retinal cell types, chronologically analogous to the development of the cell types in a mature human retina. This study also established a robust method for the in vitro derivation of RGCs and astrocytes from human iPS cells and provided novel methodologies and evidence to characterize these individual somatic cell types. Overall, this study provides a unique insight into the application of human pluripotent stem cell biology by establishing a novel platform for future studies of in vitro disease modeling of the retinal degenerative diseases: Usher syndrome and glaucoma. In downstream applications of this study, the disease relevant cell types derived from human iPS cells can be used as tools to further study disease progression, drug screening and cell replacement strategies.