Evidence relating to the use and veneration of the human head in a religious context is found repeatedly in the archaeological record and folklore of the British Isles. This has been documented from the earliest period, and manifests itself throughout prehistory and recent history in a variety of forms, from human skulls used as talismans to carved stone heads produced as part of a folk tradition of long standing. Until recently, much of the literature relating to the head as a sacred symbol has been produced from the perspective of Celtic studies, the material being interpreted as evidence for the existence of a "Celtic cult of the head" with roots in the pagan Iron Age. It has been claimed that this cult left an indelible mark both upon the archaeological record and the popular consciousness of later peoples, which has survived in superstition and folklore. This study aims to examine the evidence from archaeology, documentary sources and the folk tradition from outside the confines of the Celtic viewpoint, and to discuss the relationships between the different forms of material through a series of case studies. A cross-disciplinary approach is adopted as a method of interpreting this material using approaches from the viewpoints of both folklore and archaeology. Existing sources are complemented by original fieldwork, incorporating material collected from a wide range of continuing traditions surrounding the use of carved human heads and skulls. These were used for a variety of protective and luck-bringing purposes within living memory, many of them having been overlooked by previous studies. This study demonstrates the importance of integrating evidence from both archaeological and folkloric contexts as a method of understanding and interpreting ritual and religion from the past.

No description available.

No description available.

Mae’r traethawd hwn yn ymchwilio i sut y gall technoleg cyfieithu, sef Cyfieithu Awtomatig a Chofion Cyfieithu, fod o fudd i’r cyfieithydd proffesiynol mewn perthynas ag ymdrech wybyddol, cynhyrchu testun a chynhyrchedd, a sut y gall fod o gymorth o’r herwydd i’r gwaith o greu Cymru ddwyieithog. Ystyrir hefyd yr effaith a gaiff y defnydd o’r technolegau hyn ar ansawdd terfynol y cyfieithiadau, yn ôl cyfieithwyr profiadol a darpar ddefnyddwyr y cyfieithiadau hyn. Defnyddir dulliau ymchwil cofnodi trawiadau bysell a thracio llygaid, ynghyd â theclynnau ymchwil sefydliad Translation Automation Users Society (TAUS), sef dulliau nad ydynt wedi eu defnyddio hyd yma wrth ymchwilio i gyfieithu proffesiynol Cymraeg. Mae’r defnydd o dracio llygaid wrth ymchwilio i ansawdd cymharol hefyd yn wreiddiol yn rhyngwladol, a’r astudiaeth hon yw’r gyntaf i ddefnyddio’r dechnoleg hon i ymchwilio i effaith testunau a ôl-olygwyd ar y darllenydd. Hon yw’r astudiaeth gyntaf o’i bath hefyd i ymchwilio i fuddion ymarferol defnyddio technoleg cyfieithu i’r cyfieithydd proffesiynol Cymraeg y tu fewn i fframwaith rhagdybiaethol-diddwythol, gan ddefnyddio ystadegaeth gasgliadol berthnasol. Dengys y canlyniadau fod modd i’r defnydd o dechnoleg cyfieithu hwyluso gwaith y cyfieithydd yn wybyddol, lleihau’r gwaith wrth gynhyrchu testun ynghyd â chynyddu cynhyrchedd cyfieithwyr. Darganfuwyd hefyd nad yw’r defnydd o dechnoleg cyfieithu yn effeithio’n negyddol ar ansawdd cyfieithiadau terfynol, a hynny yn ôl cyfieithwyr proffesiynol profiadol a’r gymuned Gymraeg sy’n darllen gwaith cyfieithwyr. Y traethawd hwn yw’r cyntaf i ddadlau hyn ar gyfer y Gymraeg. Mae’r ymchwil a gyflwynir yma felly yn gyfraniad sylweddol i Astudiaethau Cyfieithu o safbwynt y Gymraeg, gan mai hwn yw’r traethawd cyntaf i ddadansoddi defnyddioldeb Cof Cyfieithu a Chyfieithu Awtomatig ar gyfer cyfieithwyr y Gymraeg mewn un astudiaeth sylweddol. Ar adeg pan fydd cyfieithu i’r Gymraeg yn tyfu (cf. Pennod 2), cyfraniad gwreiddiol y traethawd hwn yw dangos, trwy arbrofion rheoledig, fod Cyfieithu Awtomatig a Chof Cyfieithu yn medru bod yn arfau gwirioneddol bwerus i gyfieithwyr proffesiynol y Gymraeg.

This dissertation presents four texts: • Cath Leitreach Ruibhe, Dublin, RIA, MS. 1234 (C i 2), 19v-23r • Ferchuitred Medbe (ibid.), fols. 11r-13v • Oidheadh na Seacht Maine, prose text beg. Ri rogabustair airdrige for eirinn .i. eochaid feidliuch ... (ibid.), 27r-29r • Untitled metrical text beg. Cruacha Cathair Cloindi Cuind ..., Dublin, RIA, MS. 535 (23 P 2), 85a-86a All are unedited except the first listed. This study concluded they are Early-Modern Gaelic; the metrical text is dated by the scribe (1395), while language analyses places the others in the thirteenth-century. This study has five sections: 1. Introduction to tales' subject matter, manuscripts, previous research, and a suggested 'suite' of tales. I argue previous research is sparse, open to criticism, and academics disagree on composition purposes. External references and possible compilation sources are presented. I conclude the texts are 'products of their time' (Early-Modern Gaelic) – yet external evidence shows some of these tales existed in prose and metrical form in Middle- Gaelic. 2. Cath Leitreach Ruibhe and an English translation. Its language is analysed statistically and compared to the only other Early-Modern Gaelic text of it: Edinburgh, NLS, MS. 72. 1. 5. I argue both texts are post-1200 and closely linked. This tale was specifically mentioned in the 'Book of Lecan' (c.1395) by scribes. 3. Ferchuitred Medbe, and an English translation. Language analyis suggests thirteenth- 3. Ferchuitred Medbe, and an English translation. Language analyis suggests thirteenth-century. The same tale (Cath Bóindi) is in the 'Book of Lecan' (c.1395). 4. The untitled metrical text is presented with standardised Classical Gaelic and English versions. I argue this poem demonstrates skillful use of the deibhidhe metre. The poem is dated by the scribe (1395). 5. Oidheadh na Seacht Maine, and an English translation. Language analysis suggests thirteenth-century. I argue this tale is better dated by external sources used in composition, as it is clearly not as novel as the other two prose texts examined.

Early Irish literature, other Celtic literatures and later folklore are rich with descriptions of personal contact with the sacred. The Otherworld, or spiritual aspect of reality, is a constant and vivid presence in the legends. This reality does not seem distant, but rather, always ready to break through into physical reality, transforming those who encounter it. In earlier times, druids, and sometimes heroes and saints, seem to function fully as shamans as described by Mircea Eliade in his definitive work on shamanism, undertaking spirit journeys into the Otherworld. and returning with gifts for their people. In later times, when overtly primal shamanic practice was increasingly repressed, personal contact with the sacred became in many cases less defined and more individual. However, we continue to see contact with the Otherworld in folklore. hagiography and the mystical experiences fostered by later spiritual movements. While scholars such as Carey, Nagy and Melia have recognised and explored some of the shamanic themes present in Early Irish literature, the full complex of these themes, along with their implications for our understanding of Early Irish and Celtic culture, have not yet been hlly examined. A holistic approach to these difficult issues indicates that one must not just dissect the texts themselves for meaning, but take into account the research of archaeologists, anthropologists, psychologists and neuroscientists as well as Celticists. By doing so, I hope to show not only the evidence for Celtic shamanism itself, but suggest possible fbnctions of shamanic experience in Early Irish, and more broadly, Celtic culture, Because shamanic traditions typically have a clear cosmology and ideas about spiritual growth, I have also considered if the early Irish and, more broadly, the Celts may have had such a cosmology and ideas of harmonising with the sacred they came into such intense contact with.

No description available.

No description available.

It has long been observed that there is a correlation between the physical qualities of a watercourse and the linguistic qualities of its name; for instance, of two river-names, one having the linguistic quality of river as its generic element, and one having burn, one would expect the river to be the longer of the two. Until now, a phenomenon such as this had never been formally quantified. The primary focus of this thesis is to create, within a Scottish context, a methodology for elucidating the relationship between various qualities of hydronyms and the qualities of the watercourses they represent. The area of study includes every catchment area which falls into the sea from the River Forth, round the east coast of Scotland, up to and including the Spey; also included is the east side of the River Leven / Loch Lomond catchment area. The linguistic strata investigated are: Early Celtic, P-Celtic, Gaelic and Scots. In the first half of the introduction scholarly approaches to toponymy are discussed, in a Scottish and hydronymic context, from the inception of toponymy as a discipline up to the present day; the capabilities and limitations of these approaches are taken into consideration. In the second half the approaches taken in this thesis are outlined. The second chapter explains and justifies in more detail the methodology and calculus used in this thesis. The subsequent chapters examine the following linguistic components of a hydronym: generic elements, linguistic strata, semantics and phonological overlay. In each of these chapters the methodology is harnessed as an analytical tool to generate new findings for hydronymic research. The conclusion consists of a summary of the findings and a review of the performance of the calculus. It emerges that these analytical tools are of use to the field of toponymy in two ways. Firstly, they formalise and challenge previously unquantified statements made in the field of toponymy. Secondly, they elucidate hitherto unnoticed phenomena. It is suggested that in the future this methodology be applied to other datasets (particularly hill-names) and to other regions in Scotland and the world at large.

Ymdrinia’r traethawd hwn â dwy wedd ar gynllunio ieithyddol i adfywio’r Gymraeg yng Nghymru heddiw, a’r berthynas rhyngddynt. Y wedd gyntaf yw Hyfforddiant Ymwybyddiaeth am y Gymraeg i staff sefydliadau cyhoeddus wedi Deddf yr Iaith Gymraeg 1993, ac yn neilltuol, esblygiad ffurf feirniadol arno. Y wedd arall yw’r model cynllunio ieithyddol cynhwysol a arddelir gan Lywodraeth Cymru ers 2003, model a bennai i’r gymdeithas sifil rôl bartneriaethol allweddol yn y prosiect adfywio ieithyddol. Olrheinir yn gyntaf ddatblygiad y mudiad ymwybyddiaeth iaith ym maes addysgeg dysgu iaith yn Lloegr yn negawdau olaf yr 20fed ganrif, ac esblygiad ei bersbectifau beirniadol. Olrheinir wedyn ddatblygiad Hyfforddiant Ymwybyddiaeth Iaith yng Nghymru, nid ym maes addysgeg iaith, ond fel ymyriad eilaidd gan gyrff is-lywodraethol i esbonio i’w staff y gofynion statudol newydd iddynt drin y Gymraeg a’r Saesneg yn gyfartal wrth ddarparu gwasanaethau cyhoeddus. Gofynnai hyn am gryn newid arferion, wedi tros 450 mlynedd o eithrio’r Gymraeg o beuoedd swyddogol. Esblygodd cyfeiriadedd beirniadol ar yr hyfforddiant i gyflwyno’r cyd-destun ehangach i hyfforddeion, sef ffurf a amlyga natur ideolegol polisïau ieithyddol. Ar sail tystiolaeth wreiddiol ac eilaidd, gan gynnwys arolwg ansoddol a meintiol o hyfforddeion, dadleuir ei fod yn borth mynediad pwysig i ddinasyddion i wybodaeth a disgwrs prin am y Gymraeg. O droi at fodel cynllunio ieithyddol y Llywodraeth, olrheinir rhethreg gynhwysol testunau polisi, a chymherir y rhethreg â’r cynhyrchion polisi a gafwyd. Cyflwynir tystiolaeth mai prin fu’r ymyriadau cynhwysol, ac y methodd y prif asiantau cynllunio ieithyddol ag adnabod potensial Hyfforddiant Ymwybyddiaeth Feirniadol fel porth mynediad arwyddocaol i ddisgwrs cynhwysol. Argymhellir y dylid cynnwys yr hyfforddiant yn yr amrediad o brif ymyriadau a ystyrir gan Lywodraeth Cymru i weithredu’r model cynhwysol, a’i brif-ffrydio mewn sawl pau gymdeithasol er cynyddu mynediad dinasyddion at wybodaeth a disgwrs ieithyddol, gan fraenaru’r tir ar gyfer ‘newid ymddygiad ieithyddol’.