Chapter 1: When Environmental Subsidies Backfire: The Case of Black Liquor and the Alternative Fuel Mixture Tax Credit: In 2005, the US government introduced the Alternative Fuel Mixture Tax Credit (AFMTC), which paid fifty cents/gallon for alternative fuel that was mixed and burned with traditional fuel. The American chemical pulp industry, which has traditionally burned ‘Black Liquor’, a residue of the pulping process, was able to make large claims on this subsidy in 2009 by mixing diesel fuel into a process where it was not required. This scenario exhibits two main downfalls of environmental subsidies: (i) the majority of the subsidy is paid to free-riders, and (ii) there are strong incentives towards overproduction and increased pollution. In this paper, the value of the AFMTC per tonne of chemical pulp is computed and used in a simulation using the Global Forest Products Model (Buongiorno, 2001) to calculate the effects of the AFMTC on the American and Canadian chemical pulp industries. The simulation suggests that the total amount paid to the American chemical pulp industry was US$7.63 billion, that American chemical pulp production rose by 2.5 million tonnes from the baseline, and Canadian production and exports to the US fell by 285,000 and 255,000 tonnes respectively, costing Canadian chemical pulp producers US$132 million in lost production. Using Canadian chemical pulp production and pollutant release data, production/release averages were developed. These averages suggest that the increase in American chemical pulp production led to significant increase in releases of greenhouse gases, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides and particulate matter. Chapter 2: The Alternative Fuel Mixture Tax Credit and the Pulp and Paper Green Transformation Program: A Policy Comparison: In 2009, chemical pulp mills in the US and Canada were able to take advantage of two subsidy programs that paid mills fifty cents for every gallon of ‘Black Liquor’ burned during the pulping process. Black Liquor is a residue product from the production of chemical pulp, and is traditionally used as a fuel in further pulp production. These subsidies were the Alternative Fuel Mixture Tax Credit (AFMTC) in the US and the Pulp and Paper Green Transformation Program (PPGTP) in Canada. Even though the AFMTC was a subsidy that applied to many industries, and the PPGTP was only available to chemical pulp mills, in the context of the chemical pulp industry only, the subsidies were almost identical: Both paid mills the same amount for undertaking the same activity, and mills were able to claim the subsidies for roughly the same amount of time. The key difference between the two programs was stipulations on how the money was to be spent. In the US, the AFMTC was a refundable tax credit, and simply another source of revenue for a recipient mill. In Canada, a recipient of PPGTP funds was required to spend the money on some form of capital investment that would increase energy efficiency or lower pollution emissions from the mill. In this paper, we develop a theoretical model with a representative chemical pulp mill in order to compare the effects that these two subsidies would have on the mill’s production of pulp (and in turn its production and use of black liquor), and its decision in whether to invest in a one-time capital improvement that would increase energy efficiency at the mill. The results from this model show that the PPGTP was a more effective policy than the AFMTC, in that it encouraged increased investment in energy efficiency, whereas the AFMTC did not. However, the PPGTP provides incentives to increase production, similar to the AFMTC, in two out of three possible outcomes. Even though the PPGTP is shown to be more effective than the AFMTC, it still exhibits several properties inherent in a second-best policy - because the subsidy is tied to production, it encouraged increased production, and may not have allocated funding in an efficient manner. Chapter 3: Naming, Shaming, and Abatement: Do Published ‘Top Emitter’ Lists Provide Incentive for Increasing Pollution Prevention Activities? Several works have measured the effects that publically disclosed pollutant release information has on the firms and facilities reporting the information. Most of these studies quantify the negative response that the information garners with the media, through some measure of media coverage, and measure the negative impact that this attention has on the firm; for example, by showing a negative effect on the respective company’s publically traded stock performance. Subsequent studies have then shown how these negative impacts from publicity cause firms to report lower emissions levels in following years. What is currently missing from this body of literature, however, is an examination of the step in between the firm receiving negative press and reporting lower emissions, namely, increased pollution abatement efforts on behalf of the publically labeled facility. In this paper, we attempt to gain a better understanding of this relationship by examining Canadian self-reported facility level data on pollution prevention activities from the National Pollutant Release Inventory. Two consistent samples of data are used to empirically test the effects that ‘Top Ten’ emitter lists, published by Environment Canada in the late 1990’s, had on the number of pollution prevention activities undertaken by facilities in the following year. The results from this work were inconclusive: Between these two samples, there was a noticeable decrease in the amount of pollution prevention activities reported in years after the cessation of the Top Ten publications. Under certain model specifications, a facility that was labeled as a Top Ten emitter is estimated to have 20% more pollution prevention activities undertaken compared to a facility that was not so labeled. It was also shown that a firm that reported new pollution abatement activities also had a significant reduction in releases. This finding, along with the decreasing trend in reported activities, raises a significant policy issue, as measures that clearly reduce reported emissions are being reported with less frequency in Canada.

<p>This thesis work was made for Södra Cell Mörrums bruk in Blekinge. The purpose of the work was to develop a computer model in the simulation program Extend for the removal and balance of organic oxygen consuming substances, measured as COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand), in the new biological treatment plant in the mill. The plant produces two different pulp products, TCF- (Totally Chlorine Free) pulp and ECF- (Elementary Chlorine Free) pulp, for sale. The different bleaching procedures affect the characteristic of the wastewater and thus the effectiveness of the biological treatment plant.</p><p>In the model that was developed the COD in the wastewater was divided into five different COD-fractions: soluble easily degradable (SS), soluble hardly degradable (SR), soluble inert (SI), particulate inert (XI) and particulate biomass (XB). To create the model FlowMac™ was used as a base. FlowMac™ is a library module in Extend adapted for pulp and paper mills. Some of the blocks only needed a slight modification while others, for example the sedimentation basin and the bioblocks, had to be done from scratch. The calibration of the model was made from data from a period of eleven weeks and a validation was made from data that differed as much as possible from the calibration data. Then the model was used to find out in what way an increase in production to 480 000 annual tons should affect the discharge of organic oxygen consumption substances.</p><p>Results from the model indicates that the goals for the total COD-discharge will be hard to achieve with an increase in production to 480 000 annual tons. Despite the fact that production of TCF-pulp generates more COD than ECF-production the total discharge of COD is lower at TCF-production. The reason is that easier degradable COD is generated in TCF-bleaching. One of the major problems is that the torrent of water that is bypassed the biological treatment plant contains a large amount of COD and the efficiency of the treatment plant must be very high if the goals for the total COD-discharge shouldn’t be exceeded.</p> / <p>Det här examensarbetet gjordes för Södra Cell på Mörrums Bruk i Blekinge. Arbetet bestod i att göra en modell i simuleringsprogrammet Extend över nedbrytningen och massbalansen av organiska syreförbrukande ämnen, mätt som COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand), i den nybyggda biologiska reningsanläggningen på bruket. Mörrums bruk är en sulfatmassafabrik som producerar både TCF- (Totally Chlorine Free) och ECF- (Elementary Chlorine Free) massa för avsalu. De olika blekningsmetoderna påverkar sammansättningen på avloppsvattnet och därmed också den biologiska reningsanläggningens reduktion av COD.</p><p>I modellen som utvecklades delades inkommande COD i obehandlat vatten upp i fem olika COD-fraktioner: löst lättnedbrytbart (SS), löst svårnedbrytbart (SR), löst inert (SI), partikulärt inert (XI) och partikulärt nedbrytbart COD i form av biomassa (XB). För att bygga modellen användes FlowMac™ som utgångspunkt. FlowMac™ är en biblioteksmodul i Extend avpassad för pappersbruk. En del block behövde bara modifieras medan andra block, t.ex. sedimenteringen och bioblocken, fick byggas till. Modellen kalibrerades med medelvärden från en elvaveckorsperiod och en validering gjordes med data från några veckor med mer extrema värden på inkommande vatten. Med modellen gjordes en simulering för att undersöka vad en produktionsökning till 480 000 årston skulle innebära med avseende på utsläppen av organiska syreförbrukande ämnen.</p><p>Resultat från modellen tyder på att det vid en ökning av produktionen till 480 000 årston blir svårt att nå de uppställda totala utsläppsmålen för COD. Vid produktion av TCF-massa bildas mer COD men utsläppsmängderna är lägre än vid ECF-produktion. Anledningen är att den COD som bildas ut vid TCF-blekning innehåller en större mängd lättnedbrytbart COD. En bidragande orsak till att det blir svårt att hålla utsläppsmålen för COD är att de flöden som leds förbi reningsanläggningen innehåller mycket COD vilket gör att verkningsgraden över reningsanläggningen måste vara hög för att klara målen för totala COD-utsläppet.</p>

This thesis work was made for Södra Cell Mörrums bruk in Blekinge. The purpose of the work was to develop a computer model in the simulation program Extend for the removal and balance of organic oxygen consuming substances, measured as COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand), in the new biological treatment plant in the mill. The plant produces two different pulp products, TCF- (Totally Chlorine Free) pulp and ECF- (Elementary Chlorine Free) pulp, for sale. The different bleaching procedures affect the characteristic of the wastewater and thus the effectiveness of the biological treatment plant. In the model that was developed the COD in the wastewater was divided into five different COD-fractions: soluble easily degradable (SS), soluble hardly degradable (SR), soluble inert (SI), particulate inert (XI) and particulate biomass (XB). To create the model FlowMac™ was used as a base. FlowMac™ is a library module in Extend adapted for pulp and paper mills. Some of the blocks only needed a slight modification while others, for example the sedimentation basin and the bioblocks, had to be done from scratch. The calibration of the model was made from data from a period of eleven weeks and a validation was made from data that differed as much as possible from the calibration data. Then the model was used to find out in what way an increase in production to 480 000 annual tons should affect the discharge of organic oxygen consumption substances. Results from the model indicates that the goals for the total COD-discharge will be hard to achieve with an increase in production to 480 000 annual tons. Despite the fact that production of TCF-pulp generates more COD than ECF-production the total discharge of COD is lower at TCF-production. The reason is that easier degradable COD is generated in TCF-bleaching. One of the major problems is that the torrent of water that is bypassed the biological treatment plant contains a large amount of COD and the efficiency of the treatment plant must be very high if the goals for the total COD-discharge shouldn’t be exceeded. / Det här examensarbetet gjordes för Södra Cell på Mörrums Bruk i Blekinge. Arbetet bestod i att göra en modell i simuleringsprogrammet Extend över nedbrytningen och massbalansen av organiska syreförbrukande ämnen, mätt som COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand), i den nybyggda biologiska reningsanläggningen på bruket. Mörrums bruk är en sulfatmassafabrik som producerar både TCF- (Totally Chlorine Free) och ECF- (Elementary Chlorine Free) massa för avsalu. De olika blekningsmetoderna påverkar sammansättningen på avloppsvattnet och därmed också den biologiska reningsanläggningens reduktion av COD. I modellen som utvecklades delades inkommande COD i obehandlat vatten upp i fem olika COD-fraktioner: löst lättnedbrytbart (SS), löst svårnedbrytbart (SR), löst inert (SI), partikulärt inert (XI) och partikulärt nedbrytbart COD i form av biomassa (XB). För att bygga modellen användes FlowMac™ som utgångspunkt. FlowMac™ är en biblioteksmodul i Extend avpassad för pappersbruk. En del block behövde bara modifieras medan andra block, t.ex. sedimenteringen och bioblocken, fick byggas till. Modellen kalibrerades med medelvärden från en elvaveckorsperiod och en validering gjordes med data från några veckor med mer extrema värden på inkommande vatten. Med modellen gjordes en simulering för att undersöka vad en produktionsökning till 480 000 årston skulle innebära med avseende på utsläppen av organiska syreförbrukande ämnen. Resultat från modellen tyder på att det vid en ökning av produktionen till 480 000 årston blir svårt att nå de uppställda totala utsläppsmålen för COD. Vid produktion av TCF-massa bildas mer COD men utsläppsmängderna är lägre än vid ECF-produktion. Anledningen är att den COD som bildas ut vid TCF-blekning innehåller en större mängd lättnedbrytbart COD. En bidragande orsak till att det blir svårt att hålla utsläppsmålen för COD är att de flöden som leds förbi reningsanläggningen innehåller mycket COD vilket gör att verkningsgraden över reningsanläggningen måste vara hög för att klara målen för totala COD-utsläppet.

Abstract This thesis aims to increase our knowledge about the characteristics of chemical pulp process and wastewaters and how problematic substances, e.g. wood extractives, could be removed effectively and selectively by coagulation–flocculation with either internal or external water treatment. Characterization was performed by investigating kraft pulp bleaching filtrates, as well as wastewater, before (influent) and after (effluent) the activated sludge treatment by means of a range of chemical analyses and by carrying out size fractionation studies. Cationic polyelectrolytes were used to purify oxygen stage bleaching filtrate, and charge analyses (zeta potential, charge quantity) were carried out in order to understand the coagulation phenomenon. In activated sludge treatment, the enhancement of particle removal, either by filtration or using a chemical in the primary clarifier, would lead to savings in aeration costs and result in a more stable process. Microfiltration already with a large pore size (8 µm) removed 30–50% of the wood extractives from the influent. Separate treatment stages for certain wastewater fractions, e.g. debarking plant effluent, would ensure cost-efficiency. After the activated sludge process, the wood extractives were present as particles (18%) and &lt; 3 kDa fraction (82%). β-sitosterol occurred only in particles in the effluent. The release of harmful components into the environment could be decreased by microfiltration (e.g. 0.45 µm) of the final effluent or using a chemical in the secondary clarifier. Interestingly a huge increase in BOD was realized in the 3 kDa fraction of both influent and effluent, which indicated the presence of toxic substances in the larger fractions. After passing the effluent into the water system, there might be a similar jump in the BOD because the effluent is diluted many-fold. This would contribute to the formation of areas with an oxygen deficit. In the coagulation–flocculation studies, effective and selective removal of wood extractives (92%) from the oxygen stage filtrate was obtained with a cationic polyelectrolyte of medium molecular weight and medium charge density at 72 °C and pH 5–6. The multimodal zeta potential distribution gave more information than the average zeta potential. Aggregation of colloidal particles occurred when only one zeta potential was observed. The number of different zeta potentials diminished with decreasing pH and after exceeding a certain polyelectrolyte dosage level.

Munksunds pappersbruk är ett integrerat massa- och pappersbruk som består av två fiberlinjer, en barr- och en lövlinje där båda kokarna är kontinuerliga med efterföljande tvättsteg. En kartering av COD (eng. Chemical Oxygen Demand) och natrium utfördes för båda linjerna för att utvärdera tvätteffektiviteten. COD anger hur mycket syre som krävs för att bryta ned det kvarvarande organiska materialet och natrium används som en indikator på tvättförlusten av kokkemikalierna. Karteringen utfördes genom att analysera in- och utgående flöden vid varje tvättsteg, exklusive kokarna. En förenklad metod användes, där tre flöden analyserades och den fjärde beräknades genom flödes- och massbalanser. Modellen som användes för att beskriva tvätteffektiviteten för respektive utrustning var tvättutbytet Y, som erhölls genom en massbalans. Studien visade att halten COD och Natrium minskar mest från början för respektive linje och når ett gränsvärde runt 8,2 kg COD/adt och 6,6 kg Na/adt för barrlinjen, respektive 8,5 kg COD/adt och 4,8 kg Na/adt för lövlinjen, där ytterligare substans inte kan tvättas bort. Båda linjerna tvättar likvärt med avseende på COD, men lövlinjen tvättar bättre med avseende på natrium. I det sista tvättsteget hade båda fiberlinjerna eliminerat 98% av den inkommande COD-mängden med massan från kokarna. Vidare hade barrlinjen eliminerat 86% och lövlinjen 93% med avseende på natrium i det sista tvättsteget. Utvärderingen av de olika tvättutrustningarna visade att DD-filtret i lövlinjen var effektivast både med avseende på COD och natrium, följt av PO-pressen. På barrlinjen var filter 1 mest effektivt med avseende på COD och natrium. / A mapping of COD (Chemical oxygen demand) and sodium will be done to evaluate the different washing steps. COD describe the amount of oxygen needed to dissolve the organic matter left in the pulp and sodium is used as an indicator of the washing loss of the cooking chemicals. The in- and outgoing streams of the washing steps was analyzed to examine the efficiency. A simplified method was applied where three streams were analyzed and the fourth was calculated through flow-and mass balances. The model used to describe the wash efficiency in this study was the wash yield, which can be obtained by mass balances. The study showed that the content of COD and sodium decreased most in the beginning and reaches a limit value of 8,2 kg COD/adt and 6,6 kg Na/adt in the softwood pulp line and 8,5 kg COD/adt and 4,8 kg Na/adt in the soft wood pulp line, where no more content could be removed. Both pulp lines washed efficient with aspect of COD, but the hardwood pulp line washed more efficient in the aspect of natrium compared to the softwood pulp line. In the last washing step, both pulp lines had removed 98% of the ingoing COD from the digester. With aspect to natrium the softwood pulp line had removed 86% and the hardwood pulp line 93% in the last washing step. The evaluation of the different washing equipment showed that the DD-filter in the hardwood pulp line was the most efficient with aspect of both COD and Sodium, followed by the PO-press. In the softwood pulp line, filter 2 was the most efficient regarding both COD and Sodium. The flow- and mass balances turned out to be complicated at some of the washing steps, especially around the Q1-press in the hardwood pulp line and press 1-3 and filter 2 in the softwood pulp line. The reason for this could be that different functional chemicals are added before the Q1-press, which was not considered in this study, additional causes could be unidentified flows that affect the balances. The study was limited to only analyze three streams and calculate the fourth, an analyze of all the streams would give a more accurate result. However, the study provides a good overview of the wash efficiency in the pulp mill.

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