Violence-exposed children are unintended victims, often an unseen and overlooked victim group in society. It is a societal responsibility that all victims are realized and supported. Through describing the perspective of professionals meeting these children, their status and opportunities in society and legal system can be investigated. To study professionals’ experiences, conceptions, and knowledge about violence-exposed children, a questionnaire was distributed to 63 professionals, representing police, prosecutors, social- and treatment personnel. Qualitative questions about experiences and knowledge were analysed thematically. Additional quantitative statements of held conceptions were analysed with t-tests and regression methods. Findings revealed these children are still overlooked; psychological knowledge about their symptoms, testimonies, and perspective is lacking; professional routines/guidelines are missing; and problems such as children’s legal status as non-victims are hindering effective work to guarantee these children’s care. Results provide information facilitating necessary changes to ensure this group of psychologically abused victims’ recovery and societal rights.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--York University, 2001. Graduate Programme in Psychology. / Typescript. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 197-212). Also available on the Internet. MODE OF ACCESS via web browser by entering the following URL: http://wwwlib.umi.com/cr/yorku/fullcit?pNQ67917.

Section 234 of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996, states that in order to deepen the culture of democracy established by the Constitution, Parliament may adopt Charters of Rights consistent with the provisions of the Constitution. In accordance with its obligations caused by ratifying various international instruments, the government adopted the Service Charter for Victims of Crime in South Africa in 2007. The Service Charter entrenches seven specific rights to a victim of a crime, which also includes the child as a victim. The purpose of this dissertation is to investigate the question whether the rights of child victims to be treated with fairness and with respect for dignity and privacy, to offer information and to receive information are satisfactorily protected within the South African legal framework in light of the requirements of the Constitution and the international legal framework. As point of departure, the background and legal nature of the Service Charter will be investigated briefly. The background of the relevant international and regional instruments are also discussed. This is followed by an analysis and an explanation of the theoretical foundations of the right to be treated with fairness and with respect for dignity and privacy, from an international, regional and a South African perspective. Attention is particularly drawn to the way the courts have interpreted the right to be treated with fairness and with respect for dignity and privacy. What the right entails within the Victim’s Charter is also investigated. This is followed by an analysis and an explanation of the theoretical foundations of the right to offer information and to receive information, from an international, regional and a South African perspective. What the right entails within the Victim’s Charter is also investigated. Finally, a conclusion is reached. / LLM (Comparative Child Law), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Section 234 of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996, states that in order to deepen the culture of democracy established by the Constitution, Parliament may adopt Charters of Rights consistent with the provisions of the Constitution. In accordance with its obligations caused by ratifying various international instruments, the government adopted the Service Charter for Victims of Crime in South Africa in 2007. The Service Charter entrenches seven specific rights to a victim of a crime, which also includes the child as a victim. The purpose of this dissertation is to investigate the question whether the rights of child victims to be treated with fairness and with respect for dignity and privacy, to offer information and to receive information are satisfactorily protected within the South African legal framework in light of the requirements of the Constitution and the international legal framework. As point of departure, the background and legal nature of the Service Charter will be investigated briefly. The background of the relevant international and regional instruments are also discussed. This is followed by an analysis and an explanation of the theoretical foundations of the right to be treated with fairness and with respect for dignity and privacy, from an international, regional and a South African perspective. Attention is particularly drawn to the way the courts have interpreted the right to be treated with fairness and with respect for dignity and privacy. What the right entails within the Victim’s Charter is also investigated. This is followed by an analysis and an explanation of the theoretical foundations of the right to offer information and to receive information, from an international, regional and a South African perspective. What the right entails within the Victim’s Charter is also investigated. Finally, a conclusion is reached. / LLM (Comparative Child Law), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Introdução: O Abuso Sexual em Crianças (ASC) é uma grave violação de direitos humanos. Pode causar sequelas psíquicas e somatizações, como dores de cabeça, dores abdominais, enurese, comportamentos sexualizados, masturbação em público, queda do rendimento escolar, que podem aparecer ainda durante a infância e adolescência. Outros quadros podem manifestar-se apenas na idade adulta, mais comumente disfunções sexuais, ansiedade, depressão, disfunções gastrointestinais, dor pélvica crônica, e até indução ao uso de substâncias psicoativas e tendências suicidas. A literatura indica, no entanto, que a idade precoce de início dos abusos, sua longa duração e a concomitância de contato físico íntimo, como penetração, pode acarretar sequelas psicológicas ainda mais severas. Até recentemente, a literatura sobre violência contra a criança consistiu, desproporcionalmente, em adultos relembrando fatos passados. Uma vez que as diretrizes para o tratamento de sobreviventes na infância são difíceis de extrapolar a partir de estudos de adultos, a pesquisa focada em crianças parece ser de grande relevância. Ela tem importante papel na avaliação de como as crianças processam o trauma, e de como o trauma se expressa em vários estágios de desenvolvimento. Este estudo se propõe a conhecer as crianças que sofreram abuso sexual no momento em que tiveram seu primeiro contato com o serviço de saúde de referência, e analisar a correlação entre as características da violência e a duração e a gravidade dos contatos físicos relatados e/ou constatados. Método: Foi conduzido um estudo transversal das crianças até dez anos de idade, que entre os anos de 2004 e 2013 foram atendidas pelo Programa de Atenção a Violência e Abuso Sexual, programa especializado em violência sexual na região metropolitana de São Paulo, Brasil. A duração e a gravidade dos abusos tiveram testada a sua associação com as variáveis ligadas à violência através do teste de quiquadrado, seguido pelo modelo de regressão de Poisson com variância robusta para o cálculo de Razão de Prevalência (RP). Resultados: Crianças cujos pais genéticos tiveram oito ou mais anos de educação formal experimentaram maior duração (RP mãe:4,55/pai:6,67) e gravidade (RP mãe:1,65) da violência. A maioria das crianças vivia com parentes ou amigos como cortesia (45 por cento ), o que em geral resultou em atraso na denúncia das agressões (RP: 1,64). O ASC foi menos frequente entre as crianças do sexo masculino (28 por cento ), mas estes foram expostos a abusos mais prolongados (RP: 1,28) e fisicamente agressivos (RP: 4,55). As denúncias foram mais precoces quando realizadas pelos serviços de saúde (RP: 0,63) e os abusos foram menos severos quando denunciados pela escola (RP: 0,22) ou pelos serviços de saúde (RP: 0,27). Discussão e conclusões: As crianças do sexo masculino sofreram abusos mais graves e prolongados. A associação entre abuso sexual de meninos e homossexualidade não apenas implica em vergonha e estigma social, mas também em motivo para o número reduzido de denúncias e a pouca informação disponível. Crianças cujos pais biológicos possuíam maior nível de escolaridade sofreram abusos mais prolongados e mais severos. Lembrando que pais biológicos são abusadores frequentes, suas habilidades intelectuais podem facilitar as barganhas psicológicas com as vítimas. A maioria das crianças vivia em casas de parentes como cortesia, e estiveram sujeitas à demora na denúncia de seus casos. Crianças são mais vulneráveis nestas condições por terem, muitas vezes, que tolerar abusos em troca da moradia. Os fatores que determinaram maior duração e gravidade dos abusos sexuais parecem estar relacionados, portanto, à melhor administração do segredo pelos envolvidos. As denúncias foram mais precoces quando realizadas pelos serviços de saúde e os abusos foram menos severos quando denunciados pela escola ou pelos serviços de saúde / Introduction: Child Sexual Abuse (CSA) is a serious violation of human rights. It can cause psychological sequelae and somatizations, such as headaches, abdominal pains, enuresis, sexualized behaviors, public masturbation, poor school performance, which may appear even during childhood and adolescence. Other conditions may manifest only in adulthood, most commonly sexual dysfunctions, anxiety, depression, gastrointestinal dysfunctions, chronic pelvic pain, and even use of psychoactive substances and suicidal tendencies. The literature indicates, however, that the early age of onset of abuse, its long duration and the concomitance of intimate physical contact, such as penetration, can lead to even more severe psychological sequels. Until recently, the literature on violence against children consisted, disproportionately, on adults recalling past events. Since guidelines for the treatment of childhood survivors are difficult to extrapolate from adult studies, research focused on children seems to be very relevant. It plays an important role in assessing how children process trauma, and how trauma manifests at various stages of development. This study aims to understand the children who suffered sexual abuse when they first arrive to the health facilitie, and to analyze the association between the characteristics of the violence and the length and severity of the physical contacts reported and/or verified. Method: It was conducted a cross-sectional study of children up to ten years of age, who between 2004 and 2013 were referred to a specialty program on childhood sexual abuse in São Paulo, Brazil. Length and severity of the abuse were tested for its association with variables related to the abuse using a Chi-square test, followed by the Poisson regression model with robust variance for prevalence ratio (PR). Results: Children whose biological parents had eight or more years of formal education experienced longer (PR mother: 4.55 / father: 6.67) and more aggressive abuse (mother PR: 1.65). Most children lived with relatives or friends as a courtesy (45 per cent ), which in general resulted in a delay in reporting the aggression (PR: 1.64). CSA was less frequent among males (28 per cent ), but they were more likely to be abused longer (PR: 1.28) and physically more aggressive (PR: 4.55). Reporting to the authorities were earlier when performed by the health services (PR: 0.63) and abuses were less severe when reported by the school (PR: 0.22) or health services (PR: 0.27). Discussion and conclusions: Males have suffered more severe and prolonged abuse. The association between sexual abuse of boys and homosexuality not only implies shame and social stigma, but also a reason for the small number of police reports and the few information available. Children whose biological parents had higher levels of schooling suffered longer and more aggressive abuses. Recalling that biological fathers are frequent perpetrators, their intellectual abilities can facilitate psychological bargains with the victims. Children living in relatives\' homes as a courtesy were subject to longer sexual abuse. They are more vulnerable under these conditions because they often have to tolerate abuses in return for housing. Factors that determined the longer duration and severity of sexual abuse seem to be related, therefore, to the better secret management by those involved. Health agencies reported cases most quickly and cases reported by school and health agencies were less severe

Children belong to one of the most vulnerable population groups to crime. Child victims of crime have to overcome the difficulties emerging from their victimization as well as those resulting from their participation in the adversarial criminal justice process. Child victims are typically treated by legal systems as either mere witnesses -- prosecutorial instruments -- or as objects of protection. Children's human rights and their needs beyond immediate protection are typically ignored. ¶ This thesis combines an examination of children's human rights (articulated largely in the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child) with a review of psycho-social literature on children's needs. It integrates the two disciplines thus creating a `needs-rights' model regarding child victims. This model is then used to evaluate the criminal justice process and its successes (and failures) in meeting the needs and rights of child victims. Such an integrated needs-rights evaluation identifies not only the difficulties associated with testifying in court and being interviewed multiple times. It goes beyond these topical issues, and uncovers other shortcomings of the current legal system such as the lack of true participation of child victims in the decision-making process, the neglect of rehabilitative and developmental interests of victimized children, and the inherent inability of the adversarial process to seek proactively the best interests of child victims. ¶ The thesis further explores an alternative to the criminal justice process -- that of restorative justice -- and examines its applicability to child victims. Unlike the criminal justice paradigm, restorative justice fosters the equal participation of the stakeholders (in particular victims, offenders and their communities), and focuses on their emotional and social rehabilitation while respecting their human rights. To explore the suitability of restorative justice for child victims, five restorative justice schemes from New Zealand, Australia and Canada and their evaluation studies are reviewed. Each of these schemes has included child victims, and most of them have dealt with either sexual assaults of children or family violence and abuse. Yet each of the evaluated schemes illuminates different concerns and proposes varying strategies for meeting the needs-rights of child victims. ¶ While these schemes demonstrate the significant potential of restorative justice to better address the full scope of the needs and rights of child victims, they uncover emerging concerns as well. Therefore, in the last part of the thesis, the needs-rights model is used once again to derive subsidiary principles for action, to maximize the benefits of restorative justice for child victims and minimize the related risks. A complex set of needs and rights is managed by a method of grouping them into needs-rights clusters and deriving from them simple heuristics for practitioners to follow. This clustering method of needs-rights-heuristics is a methodological contribution of the research to the psychology of law.

Introdução: O Abuso Sexual em Crianças (ASC) é uma grave violação de direitos humanos. Pode causar sequelas psíquicas e somatizações, como dores de cabeça, dores abdominais, enurese, comportamentos sexualizados, masturbação em público, queda do rendimento escolar, que podem aparecer ainda durante a infância e adolescência. Outros quadros podem manifestar-se apenas na idade adulta, mais comumente disfunções sexuais, ansiedade, depressão, disfunções gastrointestinais, dor pélvica crônica, e até indução ao uso de substâncias psicoativas e tendências suicidas. A literatura indica, no entanto, que a idade precoce de início dos abusos, sua longa duração e a concomitância de contato físico íntimo, como penetração, pode acarretar sequelas psicológicas ainda mais severas. Até recentemente, a literatura sobre violência contra a criança consistiu, desproporcionalmente, em adultos relembrando fatos passados. Uma vez que as diretrizes para o tratamento de sobreviventes na infância são difíceis de extrapolar a partir de estudos de adultos, a pesquisa focada em crianças parece ser de grande relevância. Ela tem importante papel na avaliação de como as crianças processam o trauma, e de como o trauma se expressa em vários estágios de desenvolvimento. Este estudo se propõe a conhecer as crianças que sofreram abuso sexual no momento em que tiveram seu primeiro contato com o serviço de saúde de referência, e analisar a correlação entre as características da violência e a duração e a gravidade dos contatos físicos relatados e/ou constatados. Método: Foi conduzido um estudo transversal das crianças até dez anos de idade, que entre os anos de 2004 e 2013 foram atendidas pelo Programa de Atenção a Violência e Abuso Sexual, programa especializado em violência sexual na região metropolitana de São Paulo, Brasil. A duração e a gravidade dos abusos tiveram testada a sua associação com as variáveis ligadas à violência através do teste de quiquadrado, seguido pelo modelo de regressão de Poisson com variância robusta para o cálculo de Razão de Prevalência (RP). Resultados: Crianças cujos pais genéticos tiveram oito ou mais anos de educação formal experimentaram maior duração (RP mãe:4,55/pai:6,67) e gravidade (RP mãe:1,65) da violência. A maioria das crianças vivia com parentes ou amigos como cortesia (45 por cento ), o que em geral resultou em atraso na denúncia das agressões (RP: 1,64). O ASC foi menos frequente entre as crianças do sexo masculino (28 por cento ), mas estes foram expostos a abusos mais prolongados (RP: 1,28) e fisicamente agressivos (RP: 4,55). As denúncias foram mais precoces quando realizadas pelos serviços de saúde (RP: 0,63) e os abusos foram menos severos quando denunciados pela escola (RP: 0,22) ou pelos serviços de saúde (RP: 0,27). Discussão e conclusões: As crianças do sexo masculino sofreram abusos mais graves e prolongados. A associação entre abuso sexual de meninos e homossexualidade não apenas implica em vergonha e estigma social, mas também em motivo para o número reduzido de denúncias e a pouca informação disponível. Crianças cujos pais biológicos possuíam maior nível de escolaridade sofreram abusos mais prolongados e mais severos. Lembrando que pais biológicos são abusadores frequentes, suas habilidades intelectuais podem facilitar as barganhas psicológicas com as vítimas. A maioria das crianças vivia em casas de parentes como cortesia, e estiveram sujeitas à demora na denúncia de seus casos. Crianças são mais vulneráveis nestas condições por terem, muitas vezes, que tolerar abusos em troca da moradia. Os fatores que determinaram maior duração e gravidade dos abusos sexuais parecem estar relacionados, portanto, à melhor administração do segredo pelos envolvidos. As denúncias foram mais precoces quando realizadas pelos serviços de saúde e os abusos foram menos severos quando denunciados pela escola ou pelos serviços de saúde / Introduction: Child Sexual Abuse (CSA) is a serious violation of human rights. It can cause psychological sequelae and somatizations, such as headaches, abdominal pains, enuresis, sexualized behaviors, public masturbation, poor school performance, which may appear even during childhood and adolescence. Other conditions may manifest only in adulthood, most commonly sexual dysfunctions, anxiety, depression, gastrointestinal dysfunctions, chronic pelvic pain, and even use of psychoactive substances and suicidal tendencies. The literature indicates, however, that the early age of onset of abuse, its long duration and the concomitance of intimate physical contact, such as penetration, can lead to even more severe psychological sequels. Until recently, the literature on violence against children consisted, disproportionately, on adults recalling past events. Since guidelines for the treatment of childhood survivors are difficult to extrapolate from adult studies, research focused on children seems to be very relevant. It plays an important role in assessing how children process trauma, and how trauma manifests at various stages of development. This study aims to understand the children who suffered sexual abuse when they first arrive to the health facilitie, and to analyze the association between the characteristics of the violence and the length and severity of the physical contacts reported and/or verified. Method: It was conducted a cross-sectional study of children up to ten years of age, who between 2004 and 2013 were referred to a specialty program on childhood sexual abuse in São Paulo, Brazil. Length and severity of the abuse were tested for its association with variables related to the abuse using a Chi-square test, followed by the Poisson regression model with robust variance for prevalence ratio (PR). Results: Children whose biological parents had eight or more years of formal education experienced longer (PR mother: 4.55 / father: 6.67) and more aggressive abuse (mother PR: 1.65). Most children lived with relatives or friends as a courtesy (45 per cent ), which in general resulted in a delay in reporting the aggression (PR: 1.64). CSA was less frequent among males (28 per cent ), but they were more likely to be abused longer (PR: 1.28) and physically more aggressive (PR: 4.55). Reporting to the authorities were earlier when performed by the health services (PR: 0.63) and abuses were less severe when reported by the school (PR: 0.22) or health services (PR: 0.27). Discussion and conclusions: Males have suffered more severe and prolonged abuse. The association between sexual abuse of boys and homosexuality not only implies shame and social stigma, but also a reason for the small number of police reports and the few information available. Children whose biological parents had higher levels of schooling suffered longer and more aggressive abuses. Recalling that biological fathers are frequent perpetrators, their intellectual abilities can facilitate psychological bargains with the victims. Children living in relatives\' homes as a courtesy were subject to longer sexual abuse. They are more vulnerable under these conditions because they often have to tolerate abuses in return for housing. Factors that determined the longer duration and severity of sexual abuse seem to be related, therefore, to the better secret management by those involved. Health agencies reported cases most quickly and cases reported by school and health agencies were less severe

It is common knowledge that owing to their particular vulnerability children worldwide falls prey to physical and/or sexual violence in the home and/or community or witness criminal acts. Consequently children are called upon to testify in a court of law to cruelties or acts of violence. As a result of their developmental shortcomings and immaturity, children find the criminal justice system extremely intimidating and challenging. The importance of realising a justice system that not only affords an accused person the right to a fair trial but also protects and safeguards the rights of the child victims of and witnesses to the crime is thus indisputable. The purpose of this research was therefore to assist the South African criminal justice system in its on-going challenge to find a balance between the right of the accused person to a fair trial and the protection and safeguarding of the rights of child victims and child witnesses. The protection and safeguarding of the rights of child victims and child witnesses in terms of the South African Constitution, applicable domestic law and international instruments relating thereto were extensively discussed and shortcomings identified. Possible solutions to ensure that child witnesses and child victims are adequately protected and supported during the trial stage of the criminal process were advanced. Particular emphasis was placed on the role of an intermediary in assisting child victims and child witnesses during the court process. Comparative research on the protection of child victims and child witnesses in the criminal justice systems of New Zealand and Namibia were also conducted. Conclusions drawn from comparative studies were used to recommend appropriate changes to the current system. It is submitted that the adequate protection and safeguarding of the rights of child victims and child witnesses are dependent not only on sound legal principles but also on governmental and other involved stakeholders’ commitment toward the realisation of these rights. In order to give proper effect to the protection and safeguarding of child victims’ and child witnesses’ rights, it is proposed that the recommendations made throughout this study should be adopted and implemented. In this regard the role of an intermediary is crucial and the use of intermediaries should be promoted. / Private Law / LL.D.

Text in Afrikaans / In this dissertation the legal position with regard to children as victims of sexual crimes is examined in South Africa, England, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. Sexual crimes with children are a serious and widespread international problem. The purpose of this study is to identify deficiencies / gaps in the South African law. Children are not only the victims of the sexual crimes, but they are exposed to further trauma whilst giving evidence. Their best interests are also often not taken into proper consideration during the sentencing phase. In is in the interest of justice that children=s interests must be taken into account the whole time. In terms of international conventions and charters State parties are required to protect children against all forms of discrimination, violence, abuse and exploitation. Children may not be exposed to any sexual crimes, because these activities violate their right to bodily (and psychological) integrity, human dignity and privacy. In order to acknowledge the importance of children=s best interest, priority must be given to all cases in which children are the victims and their unique characteristics, age and development must be taken into consideration. This will ensure that they are not further victimized during the trial. Deficiencies in the Criminal Law are addressed by proposing new definitions, for instance for rape and incest. Shortcomings in the Procedural Law are identified and recommendations are made especially with regard to the alternative measures by which children can testify. Guidelines are also suggested for admissible cross-examination. New sentencing options are recommended and possible aggravating circumstances which ought to play a role during the consideration of a suitable and just sentence for sexual crimes with children are suggested. / Criminal & Procedural Law / LL.D.

Text in Afrikaans / In this dissertation the legal position with regard to children as victims of sexual crimes is examined in South Africa, England, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. Sexual crimes with children are a serious and widespread international problem. The purpose of this study is to identify deficiencies / gaps in the South African law. Children are not only the victims of the sexual crimes, but they are exposed to further trauma whilst giving evidence. Their best interests are also often not taken into proper consideration during the sentencing phase. In is in the interest of justice that children=s interests must be taken into account the whole time. In terms of international conventions and charters State parties are required to protect children against all forms of discrimination, violence, abuse and exploitation. Children may not be exposed to any sexual crimes, because these activities violate their right to bodily (and psychological) integrity, human dignity and privacy. In order to acknowledge the importance of children=s best interest, priority must be given to all cases in which children are the victims and their unique characteristics, age and development must be taken into consideration. This will ensure that they are not further victimized during the trial. Deficiencies in the Criminal Law are addressed by proposing new definitions, for instance for rape and incest. Shortcomings in the Procedural Law are identified and recommendations are made especially with regard to the alternative measures by which children can testify. Guidelines are also suggested for admissible cross-examination. New sentencing options are recommended and possible aggravating circumstances which ought to play a role during the consideration of a suitable and just sentence for sexual crimes with children are suggested. / Criminal and Procedural Law / LL.D.