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  • About
  • The Global ETD Search service is a free service for researchers to find electronic theses and dissertations. This service is provided by the Networked Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations.
    Our metadata is collected from universities around the world. If you manage a university/consortium/country archive and want to be added, details can be found on the NDLTD website.
1

Mamestra configurata nucleopolyhedrovirus (MacoNPV) : potential chitin-binding proteins and their role in oral infectivity

2012 December 1900 (has links)
The bertha armyworm (Mamestra configurata) is a major pest of canola and other oilseed crops. A promising control agent for this species is the baculovirus Mamestra configurata nucleopolyhedrovirus (MacoNPV). Baculoviruses are insect-specific viruses. Infections initiate in the host midgut following ingestion of virus particles called occlusion bodies. For a productive infection to occur, the occlusion bodies must dissolve to release the infectious occlusion-derived virions. These virions must pass through the peritrophic matrix, a protein-chitin meshwork that lines the midgut of most insects and provides protection against abrasion and pathogen invasion. The mechanism by which the baculovirus virions transit the peritrophic matrix is unknown. Following the initial infection of midgut cells, a second virion phenotype, the budded virus, is released from infected cells and establishes a systemic infection within the insect. The 11K group of genes, which are conserved among baculovirus species and other insect-infecting viruses, encode proteins with a predicted chitin-binding domain. The degree of conservation of these genes among insect-infecting viruses suggests that they may play a role in insect infectivity. It is possible that the gene products could be involved in an interaction between the baculovirus occlusion-derived virions and the peritrophic matrix or the chitin-secreting cells of the midgut epithelium, and therefore may be involved in initial oral infectivity. The two 11K genes from MacoNPV (ORF 118 and ORF 164), and their homologues in a second species of baculovirus, Autographa californica multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus (AcMNPV [ORF145 and ORF150]) were expressed in a baculovirus expression system. The ability of the proteins, Maco118, Maco164, Ac145, and Ac150, to bind to chitin was assessed in vitro using chitin-coated beads. Each of the four proteins binds to chitin, and hydrophobic interactions mediate the binding. Other binding mechanisms are likely involved, but were not determined in this project. To determine the function of these proteins, a series of gene knockout and repair constructs was produced for AcMNPV ORF 145 and ORF 150 using an established bacmid system. An analysis of the knockout and repair constructs using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction showed that deletion of either ORF 145 or ORF 150 had no effect on the rate of budded virus production or viral DNA replication. Oral and injection bioassays were performed in Trichoplusia ni larvae to determine if there were differences in infectivity between the knockout, repair, and wild type constructs. Injection assays, in which budded virus from each construct was injected directly into the insect haemocoel, therefore bypassing the midgut and peritrophic matrix, indicated that there was no statistical difference in infectivity between the knockout, repair, and wild type constructs at a dose of 15 TCID50 U per larva. Oral bioassays, in which larvae were fed occlusion bodies from each virus construct, indicated that there was no statistical difference in mortality rates between the knockout, repair, and wild type constructs. The results from this study indicate that although the baculovirus 11K genes are highly conserved among baculovirus species, and the 11K gene products from MacoNPV and AcMNPV interact with chitin, they are not required for oral infectivity in T. ni larvae, and likely serve another function in the baculovirus infection cycle.
2

"Purificação, caracterização e estudos estruturais de duas lectinas ligantes de quitina das sementes do gênero Artocarpus" / Purification, Characterization and Structural Studies of Two Novel Chitin-Binding Lectins from the Seeds of Artocarpus Genus

Trindade, Melissa Barbano 29 April 2005 (has links)
Este trabalho trata da purificação em escala preparativa por técnicas cromatográficas, determinação de seqüência primária parcial, caracterização espectroscópica por dicroísmo circular, fluorescência, infravermelho e investigação de atividades biológicas de duas lectinas ligantes de quitina dos extratos salinos de Artocarpus integrifolia, jaca, e Artocarpus incisa, fruta-pão. Nossos resultados revelaram que as lectinas quitina-ligantes das sementes de jaca e fruta-pão, jackina e frutackina respectivamente, são homólogas entre si, constituindo-se por monômeros de cerca de 14 kDa formados por três subunidades, unidas por pontes S-S. Elas possuem 62% de identidade entre si, são ricas em cisteínas, aminoácidos básicos e serinas e não possuem similares identificadas até o momento, podendo constituir um novo grupo de lectinas na superfamília de lectinas quitina-específicas. Os espectros de dicroísmo circular de jackina e frutackina são similares: ambas são proteínas de estrutura toda-beta, com máximo em torno de 230 nm e mínimo em torno de 214 nm, este último, bastante distorcido por estruturas desordenadas. Os espectros de fluorescência de jackina e frutackina apresentaram máximos de emissão acima de 340 nm, sugerindo que os N-terminais de duas das 3 cadeias de jackina e frutackina (onde os triptofanos estão localizados) estão expostos. Frente a condições extremas de pH e temperatura, monitoradas por CD e fluorescência, observou-se que a estrutura de jackina é vulnerável a pH ácido e termicamente estável. Quanto às atividades biológicas, jackina e frutackina mostraram atividade inibitória de crescimento para Saccharomyces cerevisiae; jackina também mostrou promoção de adesão da linhagem de células de eritroleucemia K562, atividade inibitória para Fusarium moniliforme na concentração de 2,25 mg/mL e atividade hemaglutinante frente a células sangüíneas humanas do sistema ABO e de coelhos, que não foi inibida nem por N-acetilglicosamina, indicando sua preferência por quitina ou seus fragmentos. / This work deals with the preparative-scale purification by chromatographic techniques, the partial primary sequence determination, the spectroscopic characterization by circular dichroism, fluorescence, FT-IR and the investigation of biological activities of two novel chitin-binding lectins from the saline extracts of the seeds of Artocarpus integrifolia, jackfruit, and Artocarpus incisa, breadfruit. Our results revealed that the chitin-binding lectins from jackfruit and breadfruit, jackin and frutackin respectively, are homologous to each other, consiting of monomers of 14 kDa, made up of 3 subunits, linked by S-S bridges. They have 62% of identity between each other; they are rich in cysteines, serines and basic amino acids and they are no homologous to any other known protein, probably constituting a new group of lectins in the chitin-binding lectin superfamily. The CD spectra of jackin and frutackin are similar: both present a beta profile spectra, presenting a maximum about 230 nm and a minimum around 214 nm, this later one, distorted by unordered structures. The fluorescence spectra of jackin and frutackin presented maxima above 340 nm, suggesting that the N-terminals of the 2 up 3 chains of jackin and frutackin (where the tryptophans are) are exposed. Regarding the pH and temperature exposure, monitored by CD and fluorescence, it was observed that the structure of jackin is vulnerable to acid pH and thermally stable. When considered the biological activities, jackin and frutackin presented growth inhibition activity towards Saccharomyces cerevisiae; jackin also promoted the adhesion of the erythroleukemic cell line K562, presented growth inhibition activity towards Fusarium moniliforme at 2,25mg/mL and hemaggluting activity towards rabbit and human red cells from the system ABO, that was not inhibited even by N-acetilglucosamine, suggesting itspreference by oligomers of N-acetilglicosamine or chitin.
3

Propriedades Bioquímicas e Funcionais de uma Proteína Ligante à Quitina Purificada de Sementes de Moringa oleifera Lamarck / Biochemical and Functional Properties of Chitin-Binding Protein Purified from seeds of Moringa oleifera Lamarck

Gifoni, Juliana Menezes January 2009 (has links)
GIFONI, Juliana Menezes. Propriedades Bioquímicas e Funcionais de uma Proteína Ligante à Quitina Purificada de Sementes de Moringa oleifera Lamarck. 2009. 140 f. Tese (Doutorado em bioquímica)- Universidade Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza-CE, 2009. / Submitted by Elineudson Ribeiro (elineudsonr@gmail.com) on 2016-07-20T16:03:34Z No. of bitstreams: 1 2009_tese_jmgifoni.pdf: 8760660 bytes, checksum: 354beec73eaacf40d4940af6fcbd173a (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by José Jairo Viana de Sousa (jairo@ufc.br) on 2016-08-02T18:20:29Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 2009_tese_jmgifoni.pdf: 8760660 bytes, checksum: 354beec73eaacf40d4940af6fcbd173a (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-08-02T18:20:29Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2009_tese_jmgifoni.pdf: 8760660 bytes, checksum: 354beec73eaacf40d4940af6fcbd173a (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009 / Moringa oleifera Lam. is native from Northwest India, well adapted to tropical regions. From its seeds it was isolated a new chitin binding protein, Mo-CBP3, which has coagulant properties and antifungal activity against the phytopathogen Fusarium solani. Proteins were extracted from defatted seeds flour by 0.05 M Tris-HCl buffer, pH 8.0, containing 0.15 M NaCl. The average protein content of the flour was 216.44 mgP/gF. The crude extract was fractionated in albumins and globulins by dialysis and centrifugation. Albumins were concentrated by 90% ammonium sulfate saturation. This fraction was applied into a chitin column, previously equilibrated with the same buffer. An unadsorbed and two adsorbed peaks were obtained. The first adsorbed peak was eluted with 0.1 M N-acetyl-D-glucosamine (PNAG), and the second one, with 0.05 M acetic acid, pH 3.0 (PAC). PNAG was applied into a cation exchange column, Resource S, equilibrated with 0.05 M sodium acetate buffer, pH 5.2. The third peak corresponded to Mo-CBP3 – eluted with 0.5 M NaCl in equilibrium buffer. The protein content of Mo- CBP3 was 1.17 mgP/gF. It represents a final yield of 0.54% of crude extract proteins. Apparent molecular mass by SDS-PAGE was 18.0 kDa in the absence of β-ME, and 9.0 kDa, in its presence. Results suggest that Mo-CBP3 is a dimeric protein, made of identical subunits, linked by disulfide bonds. By molecular exclusion chromatography, calculated molecular mass was 14.34 kDa, pI 10.8. Mo-CBP3 is a glycoprotein with 2.5% of carbohydrates, which has not hemagglutinating or chitinase activities. Its NH2- terminal sequence was CPAIQRCCQQLRNIQPPCRCCQ, with 22 amino acids, conffirming its basic character. Mo-CBP3 was as efficient as AlK(SO4)2 in the capacity of coagulating suspended material in water. Mo-CBP3 (0.1 mg/mL) was fungicide to Fusarium solani spores. Heat treatment of the protein at 98 °C, du ring 1 h, and pre incubation with N-acetyl-D-glucosamine, did not reverse its action. Mo-CBP3 was able to retard the mycelial growth of the fungus even at the lowest tested dose of 0.05 mg/mL. Mo-CBP3 was inactive against the oomycete Pythium oligandrum, which has cellulose in spite of chitin in cell wall. Protein was also able to inhibit about 80% of medium acidification, induced by glucose, by F. solani spores, that suggests the influence of Mo-CBP3 over the proton pumps (H+ATPases) present in cellular membranes of F. solani spores. / Moringa oleifera Lam. é uma planta originária do Noroeste da Índia, bem adaptada às regiões tropicais. De suas sementes foi isolada uma nova proteína ligante à quitina, a Mo-CBP3, com propriedades coagulantes e atividade antifúngica contra o fitopatógeno Fusarium solani. As proteínas foram extraídas da farinha delipidada de sementes com o tampão Tris-HCl 0,05 M, pH 8,0, contendo NaCl 0,15 M. O teor médio de proteína da farinha correspondeu a 216,44 mgP/gF. O extrato total foi fracionado em albuminas e globulinas por diálise contra água seguida de centrifugação. As albuminas foram concentradas com sulfato de amônio a 90% de saturação. A F0-90% foi submetida à cromatografia de afinidade em coluna de quitina, previamente equilibrada com o tampão de extração. Foram obtidos um pico não retido e dois picos retidos, correspondentes às proteínas ligantes à quitina (CBP). O primeiro destes foi eluído com solução de N-acetil-D-glucosamina 0,1 M (PNAG), e o segundo, com ácido acético 0,05 M, pH 3,0 (PAC). PNAG foi aplicado em coluna de troca catiônica, Resource S, acoplada a um sistema de FPLC, equilibrada com tampão acetato de sódio 0,05 M, pH 5,2. Dos picos obtidos, o terceiro correspondeu à proteína Mo-CBP3 - eluída com 0,5 M de NaCl no tampão de equilíbrio. O teor protéico médio calculado para a proteína purificada Mo-CBP3 foi de 1,17 mgP/gF, representando um rendimento final de 0,54% das proteínas do extrato total. A massa molecular aparente por SDS-PAGE foi de 18,0 kDa sem o agente redutor e, de 9,0 kDa, na presença deste. O resultado sugere que Mo-CBP3 seja uma proteína dimérica formada de subunidades idênticas, unidas por pontes dissulfeto. A massa molecular de Mo-CBP3, por cromatografia de exclusão molecular, foi de 14,34 kDa, e o pI de 10,8. Trata-se de uma glicoproteína com 2,5% de carboidratos, que não apresenta atividade hemaglutinante ou quitinásica. Sua seqüência NH2-Terminal obtida foi CPAIQRCCQQLRNIQPPCRCCQ, com 22 aminoácidos, confirmando sua característica básica. Mo-CBP3 mostrou-se tão eficiente quanto o AlK(SO4)2 na capacidade de coagular matéria em suspensão na água. Mo-CBP3 foi fungicida para esporos de Fusarium solani a 0,1 mg/mL. O aquecimento da proteína a 98 °C, por 1 h, e a pré-incubação com o açúcar N-acetil-D-glucosamina, não reverteram sua ação. Mo-CBP3 mostrou-se capaz de retardar o crescimento micelial do fungo ainda na menor dose testada, 0,05 mg/mL. Mo-CBP3 é inativa contra o oomiceto Pythium oligandrum, que apresenta celulose no lugar da quitina na parede celular. A proteína foi, ainda, capaz de inibir cerca de 80% da acidificação do meio, por esporos de F. solani, induzida por glicose, o que sugere a influência de Mo-CBP3 sobre as bombas de prótons (H+ATPases) presentes na membrana celular dos esporos deste fungo.
4

"Purificação, caracterização e estudos estruturais de duas lectinas ligantes de quitina das sementes do gênero Artocarpus" / Purification, Characterization and Structural Studies of Two Novel Chitin-Binding Lectins from the Seeds of Artocarpus Genus

Melissa Barbano Trindade 29 April 2005 (has links)
Este trabalho trata da purificação em escala preparativa por técnicas cromatográficas, determinação de seqüência primária parcial, caracterização espectroscópica por dicroísmo circular, fluorescência, infravermelho e investigação de atividades biológicas de duas lectinas ligantes de quitina dos extratos salinos de Artocarpus integrifolia, jaca, e Artocarpus incisa, fruta-pão. Nossos resultados revelaram que as lectinas quitina-ligantes das sementes de jaca e fruta-pão, jackina e frutackina respectivamente, são homólogas entre si, constituindo-se por monômeros de cerca de 14 kDa formados por três subunidades, unidas por pontes S-S. Elas possuem 62% de identidade entre si, são ricas em cisteínas, aminoácidos básicos e serinas e não possuem similares identificadas até o momento, podendo constituir um novo grupo de lectinas na superfamília de lectinas quitina-específicas. Os espectros de dicroísmo circular de jackina e frutackina são similares: ambas são proteínas de estrutura toda-beta, com máximo em torno de 230 nm e mínimo em torno de 214 nm, este último, bastante distorcido por estruturas desordenadas. Os espectros de fluorescência de jackina e frutackina apresentaram máximos de emissão acima de 340 nm, sugerindo que os N-terminais de duas das 3 cadeias de jackina e frutackina (onde os triptofanos estão localizados) estão expostos. Frente a condições extremas de pH e temperatura, monitoradas por CD e fluorescência, observou-se que a estrutura de jackina é vulnerável a pH ácido e termicamente estável. Quanto às atividades biológicas, jackina e frutackina mostraram atividade inibitória de crescimento para Saccharomyces cerevisiae; jackina também mostrou promoção de adesão da linhagem de células de eritroleucemia K562, atividade inibitória para Fusarium moniliforme na concentração de 2,25 mg/mL e atividade hemaglutinante frente a células sangüíneas humanas do sistema ABO e de coelhos, que não foi inibida nem por N-acetilglicosamina, indicando sua preferência por quitina ou seus fragmentos. / This work deals with the preparative-scale purification by chromatographic techniques, the partial primary sequence determination, the spectroscopic characterization by circular dichroism, fluorescence, FT-IR and the investigation of biological activities of two novel chitin-binding lectins from the saline extracts of the seeds of Artocarpus integrifolia, jackfruit, and Artocarpus incisa, breadfruit. Our results revealed that the chitin-binding lectins from jackfruit and breadfruit, jackin and frutackin respectively, are homologous to each other, consiting of monomers of 14 kDa, made up of 3 subunits, linked by S-S bridges. They have 62% of identity between each other; they are rich in cysteines, serines and basic amino acids and they are no homologous to any other known protein, probably constituting a new group of lectins in the chitin-binding lectin superfamily. The CD spectra of jackin and frutackin are similar: both present a beta profile spectra, presenting a maximum about 230 nm and a minimum around 214 nm, this later one, distorted by unordered structures. The fluorescence spectra of jackin and frutackin presented maxima above 340 nm, suggesting that the N-terminals of the 2 up 3 chains of jackin and frutackin (where the tryptophans are) are exposed. Regarding the pH and temperature exposure, monitored by CD and fluorescence, it was observed that the structure of jackin is vulnerable to acid pH and thermally stable. When considered the biological activities, jackin and frutackin presented growth inhibition activity towards Saccharomyces cerevisiae; jackin also promoted the adhesion of the erythroleukemic cell line K562, presented growth inhibition activity towards Fusarium moniliforme at 2,25mg/mL and hemaggluting activity towards rabbit and human red cells from the system ABO, that was not inhibited even by N-acetilglucosamine, suggesting itspreference by oligomers of N-acetilglicosamine or chitin.
5

CaracterizaÃÃo do exsudato de sementes de Moringa oleÃfera Lamarck e investigaÃÃo de seu papel na defesa do vegetal / Characterization of seed exudate Moringa oleifera Lamarck and investigation of their role in plant defense

AntÃnio Juscelino SudÃrio Sousa 16 May 2013 (has links)
CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior / Moringa oleifera (moringa) à uma espÃcie pertencente à famÃlia Moringaceae que se caracteriza por ser muito resistente a insetos e fungos. Trabalhos prÃvios realizados por nosso grupo de pesquisa revelaram a presenÃa de proteÃnas ligantes à quitina em sementes de moringa, dentre elas a Mo-CBP3, sugerindo uma correlaÃÃo positiva entre essa proteÃna e a resistÃncia da planta. No inÃcio do desenvolvimento da planta, para que ocorra a germinaÃÃo, deve haver a embebiÃÃo da semente, um processo seguido pela exsudaÃÃo. Na exsudaÃÃo, compostos do metabolismo primÃrio e secundÃrio sÃo externalizados da semente, alguns deles exercendo aÃÃo de defesa da nova planta ao impedirem o ataque de herbÃvoros e/ou patÃgenos. O presente trabalho teve como objetivos caracterizar o exsudato de sementes de moringa quanto à composiÃÃo bioquÃmica e atividade biolÃgica e investigar a presenÃa de Mo-CBP3 no exsudato, visando contribuir para o estabelecimento de seu papel fisiolÃgico. Inicialmente, foram estabelecidas as condiÃÃes de exsudaÃÃo, dando Ãnfase ao tempo e solvente. Uma maior exsudaÃÃo de proteÃnas foi observada em sementes embebidas com Ãgua destilada por 24 horas. Esse exsudato mostrou a presenÃa de atividades inerentes a metabÃlitos primÃrios (protease, β-1,3-glucanase, quitinase, inibidor de tripsina e inibidor de papaÃna) e secundÃrios (saponinas e esteroides). Mo-CBP3 foi tambÃm detectada no exsudato, usando anticorpos policlonais anti-Mo-CBP3. A presenÃa de Mo-CBP3 no exsudato de sementes de moringa foi confirmada apÃs este ter sido submetido à cromatografia em matriz de quitina, procedida pela anÃlise atravÃs de dot bloting e eletroforese em gel de poliacrilamida. Os dados obtidos mostraram que o material retido na matriz de quitina corresponde a 0,26% do total de proteÃnas exsudadas, à reconhecido pelo anticorpo anti-Mo-CBP3 e apresenta perfil eletroforÃtico similar ao da Mo-CBP3 purificada de sementes de moringa. Na avaliaÃÃo da atividade deste exsudato frente à fitopatÃgenos, aÃÃo contra fungos nÃo foi detectada, nas condiÃÃes de ensaio empregadas, exceto para Candida parapsilosis que mostrou uma discreta reduÃÃo na taxa de crescimento. Contrariamente, uma potente atividade contra nematoide foi verificada, tendo sido o exsudato de sementes capaz de causar atà 100% de mortalidade para indivÃduos de Meloidogyne incognita em estÃgio de J2. Quando investigada a presenÃa de Mo-CBP3 em raiz, um ÃrgÃo vegetal que apresenta o fenÃmeno de exsudaÃÃo e, tambÃm, à capaz de interagir diretamente com o nematoide, resultados positivos foram encontrados. De fato, Mo- CBP3 està presente em raÃzes de moringa, jà nos estÃgios iniciais do desenvolvimento, conforme resultados mostrados por ELISA e atravÃs da tÃcnica de RT-PCR. Os dados, em conjunto, sugerem que no fenÃmeno da exsudaÃÃo, proteÃnas devem desempenhar funÃÃes essenciais e que, no caso da moringa, Mo- CBP3 jà participa nos estÃgios iniciais do desenvolvimento dessa planta arbÃrea, papel este que pode estar relacionado com a proteÃÃo contra patÃgenos. / Moringa oleifera (moringa) is a species belonging to the family Moringaceae which is characterized as having high resistance to insects and fungi. Previous work carried out by our research group revealed the presence of chitin-binding proteins in moringa seeds, among them Mo-CBP3, suggesting a positive correlation between this protein and the plant resistance. At the onset of the new plant development, for germination to occur, seed imbibition is required, a process followed by exudation. In exudation process, primary and secondary metabolites are released in the medium outside the seeds, some of them protecting the new plant against herbivores and/or pathogens. This study aimed to characterize the chemical composition and biological activities of moringa seed exudate and to investigate the presence of Mo-CBP3 in the exudate, in order to contribute to the establishment of its physiological role. Initially, the best conditions for exudation were established, emphasizing the time and solvent. A higher exudation of seed proteins was observed in distilled water after 24 hours. This exudate showed the presence of activities related to primary (protease, β-1,3- glucanase, chitinase, trypsin inhibitor and papain inhibitor) and secondary (steroid and saponins) metabolites. Mo-CBP3 was also detected in the exudate, using polyclonal antibodies anti-Mo-CBP3. The presence of Mo-CBP3 in the moringa seed exudate was confirmed after chromatography on chitin matrix and analyses by dot blotting and polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The data obtained showed that the retained material on the chitin matrix corresponds to 0.26% of the total protein, it is recognized by anti-Mo-CBP3 and has electrophoretic profile similar to that of Mo- CBP3 which was purified from moringa seeds. In the activity tests to pathogens, the seed exudate showed no antifungal activity, under the conditions used, except for Candida parapsilosis which had a slight reduction in its growth rate. In contrast, a potent activity against nematode was found as the seed exudate was able to cause a mortality rate up to 100% of Meloidogyne incognita in J2 stage. When investigated the presence of Mo-CBP3 in moringa hoots, a plant organ that shows the exudation phenomen and is also able to interact directly with the nematode, positive results were found. In fact, Mo-CBP3 is present in moringa hoots, in the initial stages of the plant development, according to the results shown by ELISA and RT-PCR. The data, taken together, suggest that in the exudation phenomen, proteins must play essential roles. In the case of moringa, Mo-CBP3 already participates in the initial stages of development of this tree species, playing a role that must be related to protection against pathogens.
6

Propriedades BioquÃmicas e Funcionais de uma ProteÃna Ligante à Quitina Purificada de Sementes de Moringa oleifera Lamarck / Biochemical and Functional Properties of Chitin-Binding Protein Purified from seeds of Moringa oleifera Lamarck

Juliana Menezes Gifoni 10 December 2009 (has links)
CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior / Moringa oleifera Lam. à uma planta originÃria do Noroeste da Ãndia, bem adaptada Ãs regiÃes tropicais. De suas sementes foi isolada uma nova proteÃna ligante à quitina, a Mo-CBP3, com propriedades coagulantes e atividade antifÃngica contra o fitopatÃgeno Fusarium solani. As proteÃnas foram extraÃdas da farinha delipidada de sementes com o tampÃo Tris-HCl 0,05 M, pH 8,0, contendo NaCl 0,15 M. O teor mÃdio de proteÃna da farinha correspondeu a 216,44 mgP/gF. O extrato total foi fracionado em albuminas e globulinas por diÃlise contra Ãgua seguida de centrifugaÃÃo. As albuminas foram concentradas com sulfato de amÃnio a 90% de saturaÃÃo. A F0-90% foi submetida à cromatografia de afinidade em coluna de quitina, previamente equilibrada com o tampÃo de extraÃÃo. Foram obtidos um pico nÃo retido e dois picos retidos, correspondentes Ãs proteÃnas ligantes à quitina (CBP). O primeiro destes foi eluÃdo com soluÃÃo de N-acetil-D-glucosamina 0,1 M (PNAG), e o segundo, com Ãcido acÃtico 0,05 M, pH 3,0 (PAC). PNAG foi aplicado em coluna de troca catiÃnica, Resource S, acoplada a um sistema de FPLC, equilibrada com tampÃo acetato de sÃdio 0,05 M, pH 5,2. Dos picos obtidos, o terceiro correspondeu à proteÃna Mo-CBP3 - eluÃda com 0,5 M de NaCl no tampÃo de equilÃbrio. O teor protÃico mÃdio calculado para a proteÃna purificada Mo-CBP3 foi de 1,17 mgP/gF, representando um rendimento final de 0,54% das proteÃnas do extrato total. A massa molecular aparente por SDS-PAGE foi de 18,0 kDa sem o agente redutor e, de 9,0 kDa, na presenÃa deste. O resultado sugere que Mo-CBP3 seja uma proteÃna dimÃrica formada de subunidades idÃnticas, unidas por pontes dissulfeto. A massa molecular de Mo-CBP3, por cromatografia de exclusÃo molecular, foi de 14,34 kDa, e o pI de 10,8. Trata-se de uma glicoproteÃna com 2,5% de carboidratos, que nÃo apresenta atividade hemaglutinante ou quitinÃsica. Sua seqÃÃncia NH2-Terminal obtida foi CPAIQRCCQQLRNIQPPCRCCQ, com 22 aminoÃcidos, confirmando sua caracterÃstica bÃsica. Mo-CBP3 mostrou-se tÃo eficiente quanto o AlK(SO4)2 na capacidade de coagular matÃria em suspensÃo na Ãgua. Mo-CBP3 foi fungicida para esporos de Fusarium solani a 0,1 mg/mL. O aquecimento da proteÃna a 98 ÂC, por 1 h, e a prÃ-incubaÃÃo com o aÃÃcar N-acetil-D-glucosamina, nÃo reverteram sua aÃÃo. Mo-CBP3 mostrou-se capaz de retardar o crescimento micelial do fungo ainda na menor dose testada, 0,05 mg/mL. Mo-CBP3 à inativa contra o oomiceto Pythium oligandrum, que apresenta celulose no lugar da quitina na parede celular. A proteÃna foi, ainda, capaz de inibir cerca de 80% da acidificaÃÃo do meio, por esporos de F. solani, induzida por glicose, o que sugere a influÃncia de Mo-CBP3 sobre as bombas de prÃtons (H+ATPases) presentes na membrana celular dos esporos deste fungo. / Moringa oleifera Lam. is native from Northwest India, well adapted to tropical regions. From its seeds it was isolated a new chitin binding protein, Mo-CBP3, which has coagulant properties and antifungal activity against the phytopathogen Fusarium solani. Proteins were extracted from defatted seeds flour by 0.05 M Tris-HCl buffer, pH 8.0, containing 0.15 M NaCl. The average protein content of the flour was 216.44 mgP/gF. The crude extract was fractionated in albumins and globulins by dialysis and centrifugation. Albumins were concentrated by 90% ammonium sulfate saturation. This fraction was applied into a chitin column, previously equilibrated with the same buffer. An unadsorbed and two adsorbed peaks were obtained. The first adsorbed peak was eluted with 0.1 M N-acetyl-D-glucosamine (PNAG), and the second one, with 0.05 M acetic acid, pH 3.0 (PAC). PNAG was applied into a cation exchange column, Resource S, equilibrated with 0.05 M sodium acetate buffer, pH 5.2. The third peak corresponded to Mo-CBP3 â eluted with 0.5 M NaCl in equilibrium buffer. The protein content of Mo- CBP3 was 1.17 mgP/gF. It represents a final yield of 0.54% of crude extract proteins. Apparent molecular mass by SDS-PAGE was 18.0 kDa in the absence of β-ME, and 9.0 kDa, in its presence. Results suggest that Mo-CBP3 is a dimeric protein, made of identical subunits, linked by disulfide bonds. By molecular exclusion chromatography, calculated molecular mass was 14.34 kDa, pI 10.8. Mo-CBP3 is a glycoprotein with 2.5% of carbohydrates, which has not hemagglutinating or chitinase activities. Its NH2- terminal sequence was CPAIQRCCQQLRNIQPPCRCCQ, with 22 amino acids, conffirming its basic character. Mo-CBP3 was as efficient as AlK(SO4)2 in the capacity of coagulating suspended material in water. Mo-CBP3 (0.1 mg/mL) was fungicide to Fusarium solani spores. Heat treatment of the protein at 98 ÂC, du ring 1 h, and pre incubation with N-acetyl-D-glucosamine, did not reverse its action. Mo-CBP3 was able to retard the mycelial growth of the fungus even at the lowest tested dose of 0.05 mg/mL. Mo-CBP3 was inactive against the oomycete Pythium oligandrum, which has cellulose in spite of chitin in cell wall. Protein was also able to inhibit about 80% of medium acidification, induced by glucose, by F. solani spores, that suggests the influence of Mo-CBP3 over the proton pumps (H+ATPases) present in cellular membranes of F. solani spores.
7

Tribolium castaneum genes encoding proteins with the chitin-binding type II domain.

Jasrapuria, Sinu January 1900 (has links)
Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Biochemistry / Subbarat Muthukrishnan / The extracellular matrices of cuticle and peritrophic matrix of insects are composed mainly of chitin complexed with proteins, some of which contain chitin-binding domains. This study is focused on the identification and functional characterization of genes encoding proteins that possess one or more copies of the six-cysteine-containing ChtBD2 domain (Peritrophin A motif =CBM_14 =Pfam 01607) in the red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum. A bioinformatics search of T. castaneum genome yielded previously characterized chitin metabolic enzymes and several additional proteins. Using phylogenetic analyses, the exon-intron organization of the corresponding genes, domain organization of proteins, and temporal and tissue-specificity of expression patterns, these proteins were classified into three large families. The first family includes 11 proteins essentially made up of 1 to 14 repeats of the peritrophin A domain. Transcripts for these proteins are expressed only in the midgut and only during feeding stages of development. We therefore denote these proteins as “Peritrophic Matrix Proteins” or PMPs. The genes of the second and third families are expressed in cuticle-forming tissues throughout all stages of development but not in the midgut. These two families have been denoted as “Cuticular Proteins Analogous to Peritrophins 3” or CPAP3s and “Cuticular Proteins Analogous to Peritophins 1” or CPAP1s based on the number of ChtBD2 domains that they contain. Unlike other cuticular proteins studied so far, TcCPAP1-C protein is localized predominantly in the exocuticle and could contribute to the unique properties of this cuticular layer. RNA interference (RNAi), which down-regulates transcripts for any targeted gene, results in lethal and/or abnormal phenotypes for some, but not all, of these genes. Phenotypes are often unique and are manifested at different developmental stages, including embryonic, pupal and/or adult stages. The experiments presented in this dissertation reveal that while the vast majority of the CPAP3 genes serve distinct and essential functions affecting survival, molting or normal cuticle development. However, a minority of the CPAP1 and PMP family genes are indispensable for survival under laboratory conditions. Some of the non-essential genes may have functional redundancy or may be needed only under special circumstances such as exposure to stress or pathogens.
8

BiosseguranÃa alimentar da proteÃna antifÃngica Mo-CBP3 de sementes de Moringa oleifera Lam: uma candidata para o desenvolvimento de plantas transgÃnicas / Food biosecurity Mo- CBP3 antifungal protein Moringa oleifera Lam seeds : a candidate for the development of transgenic plants

Clidia Eduarda Moreira Pinto 25 September 2014 (has links)
CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior / MoÂ-CBP3 à uma proteÃna ligante à quitina, purificada de sementes de Moringa oleifera, com massa molecular aparente de 18,0 kDa, consistindo de mÃltiplas isoformas heterodimÃricas. Mo-CBP3 à uma proteÃna altamente estÃvel, que possui amplo espectro de aÃÃo contra fungos fitopatogÃnicos e mantÃm sua estrutura secundÃria e atividade antifÃngica em extremos de temperaturas e diferentes valores de pH. Dessa forma, a proteÃna Mo-CBP3 se apresenta como uma ferramenta promissora para o desenvolvimento de plantas transgÃnicas resistentes ao ataque de fungos. Para tanto, Mo-CBP3 foi submetida a testes de biosseguranÃa alimentar, visando garantir sua utilizaÃÃo atravÃs da expressÃo em plantas, minimizando, assim, os riscos para animais nÃo alvo, incluindo o homem. A avaliaÃÃo de biosseguranÃa alimentar da proteÃna seguiu o teste de duas etapas, baseado em pesos de evidÃncia, proposto pelo Instituto Internacional de CiÃncias da Vida (ILSI). A pesquisa evidenciou o longo histÃrico de uso seguro, fundamentado em dados cientÃficos, da espÃcie M. oleifera, fonte da proteÃna Mo-CBP3. AnÃlises in silico mostraram que Mo-CBP3 nÃo possui qualquer identidade com proteÃnas alergÃnicas, tÃxicas e/ou antinutricionais. Adicionalmente, nÃo foram encontrados na proteÃna epÃtopos potencialmente capazes de promover reaÃÃo cruzada e desencadear uma resposta alergÃnica. Identidade com proteÃnas alergÃnicas (> 35%) foi encontrada apenas quando uma janela de 80 aminoÃcidos foi utilizada. SÃtios potenciais de N-glicosilaÃÃo nÃo foram encontrados na proteÃna madura. A proteÃna mostrou resistÃncia ao tratamento tÃrmico e à digestibilidade por fluido gÃstrico simulado, mas foi completamente susceptÃvel à digestÃo em fluido intestinal simulado. Em adiÃÃo, Mo-CBP3 nÃo causou efeitos adversos relevantes em camundongos submetidos a doses elevadas de 5 a 2000 mg/kg, via oral, evidenciando seu carÃter inÃcuo. A partir da avaliaÃÃo de biosseguranÃa alimentar proposta pelo ILSI nÃo à esperado qualquer risco associado ao consumo da proteÃna Mo-CBP3 pelo homem e demais animais monogÃstricos. / Mo-CBP3 is a chitin binding protein purified from Moringa oleifera seeds which has an apparent molecular mass of 18.0 kDa and consists of multiple heterodimeric isoforms. Mo-CBP3 is a highly stable protein that has a broad spectrum of activity against phytopathogenic fungi and maintains its secondary structure and antifungal activity at extreme temperatures and different pH values. Thus, the Mo-CBP3 protein presents itself as a promising tool for the development of transgenic plants resistant to fungi attack. For such purpose, the Mo-CBP3 protein was subjected to food safety tests to ensure the safety of its expression in plants, minimizing the risk to non-target animals, which include human beings. The food safety assessment of the protein followed the two-tiered approach, based on weight of evidences, proposed by International Life Sciences Institute (ILSI). The research evidenced the long history of safe use, supported by scientific literature, of the M. oleifera species, source of Mo-CBP3 protein. In silico analysis did not reveal any identity of Mo-CBP3 with allergenic, toxic and/or antinutritional proteins. Additionally, were not found in the protein potential epitopes able to lead to cross reaction and unleash an allergic response. Identity with allergenic proteins was found only when a window of 80 amino acids was used. Potential sites of N-glycosylation were not found in the mature protein. The protein showed resistance to thermal treatment and digestibility by simulated gastric fluid, but was completely susceptible to digestion in simulated intestinal fluid. In addition, Mo-CBP3 caused no relevant adverse effects to mice subjected to high oral doses from 5 to 2000 mg/kg, showing its innocuous nature. Based on the food safety approach proposed by ILSI is not expected any risk associated to use of Mo-CBP3 protein for humans and other monogastric animals.
9

Identificação de uma proteína ligante à quitina em sementes de Moringa oleifera Lamarck com atividades antinociceptiva e anti-inflamatória / Identification of a Chitin-Binding Protein from Moringa oleifera Lamarck Seeds with antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects

Pereira, Mirella Leite January 2010 (has links)
PEREIRA, Mirella Leite. Identificação de uma proteína ligante à quitina em sementes de Moringa oleifera Lamarck com atividades antinociceptiva e anti-inflamatória. 2010. 148 f. Dissertação (Mestrado em Bioquímica) - Universidade Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza-CE, 2010. / Submitted by Eric Santiago (erichhcl@gmail.com) on 2016-06-22T12:58:11Z No. of bitstreams: 1 2010_dis_mlpereira.pdf: 2928438 bytes, checksum: baa96d60cb675c47c7cfb74d94bbcad3 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by José Jairo Viana de Sousa (jairo@ufc.br) on 2016-08-02T20:02:54Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 2010_dis_mlpereira.pdf: 2928438 bytes, checksum: baa96d60cb675c47c7cfb74d94bbcad3 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-08-02T20:02:54Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2010_dis_mlpereira.pdf: 2928438 bytes, checksum: baa96d60cb675c47c7cfb74d94bbcad3 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010 / Moringa oleifera Lam. is a perennial multipurpose tree with a strong scientific evidence of its curative power and used in folk medicine to cure several inflammatory processes. This work aimed to isolate and characterize a chitin-binding protein from Moringa oleifera seeds, and evaluate its antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects. Chitin-binding proteins were obtained after application of albumin fraction from crude extract of M. oleifera seeds into a chitin column and the adsorbed fraction was applied in a Resource-S matrix attached to FPLC system. The fraction eluted with 50 mM sodium acetate buffer, pH 5.2, containing 0.6 M NaCl, named Mo-CBP4 was used for the experiment. Mo-CBP4 showed a single band on SDS-PAGE (molecular mass 9.8 kDa) in presence of reducing agent, however in the absence of 2-mercaptoethanol two bands corresponding to 27.5 and 16.5 kDa were observed. Bidimensional electrophoresis of this protein revealed the presence of two spots (18.7 and 13.4 kDa), with the same isoeletric point value corresponding to 10.55. Mo-CBP4 is a glycoprotein containing 2.85% neutral sugar, which failed to agglutinate untreated or trypsin-treated erythrocytes from rabbit or human origin. This protein showed coagulant activity, similar to aluminum and potassium sulfate, the coagulant most widely used in water treatment. Mo-CBP4 was subjected to in vitro digestion with pepsin, trypsin, or chymotrypsin and appeared to be markedly resistant to digestion. Acetic acid-induced abdominal constrictions, increase in vascular permeability and leukocyte migration tests were used for the antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities assessment. Mo-CBP4 (1.0, 3.5 and 10 mg/kg) into mice potently and significantly reduced the occurrence of abdominal writhing in a dose dependent manner by 18.9, 44.6% and 98.9%, respectively. In addition, the oral administration of the protein (10 mg/kg) resulted in 18% and 52.9% reductions in abdominal writhing when given 30 and 60 min prior to acetic acid administration, respectively. Mo-CBP4 also caused a significant and dose-dependent inhibition of peritoneal capillary permeability induced by acid acetic and significantly inhibited leukocyte accumulation in the peritoneal cavity. The effect antinociceptive appeared to be independent on the carbohydrate recognition site. However the anti-inflammatory activity was partially reversed when Mo-CBP4 was pre-incubated with specific carbohydrate ligand, showing that this effect is dependent on the carbohydrate recognition site / Moringa oleifera Lam. é uma árvore conhecida pelo seu valor medicinal, uma vez que extratos de todas as partes desta planta mostraram propriedades farmacológicas reconhecidas pelo uso popular e corroboradas pela comunidade científica. Dentre as atividades farmacológicas, destacam-se àquelas relacionadas a processos inflamatórios. Este trabalho teve como objetivo o isolamento e caracterização de uma proteína ligante à quitina de sementes de Moringa oleifera e avaliação de suas atividades antinociceptiva e anti-inflamatória. As proteínas foram extraídas da farinha delipidada de sementes e o extrato total foi fracionado em albuminas e globulinas. A fração albumínica foi submetida à cromatografia de afinidade em matriz de quitina. A fração ligante à quitina eluída com N-acetil-D-glucosamina 0,1 M foi submetida à cromatografia de troca iônica acoplada a um sistema de FPLC, rendendo cinco picos protéicos. O material eluído com tampão acetato de sódio 0,5 M, pH 5,2, contendo NaCl 0,6 M, denominado Mo-CBP4 (Mo – Moringa oleifera; “CBP – “chitin binding protein”), teve um rendimento final de 0,54% e foi escolhido para dar continuidade ao trabalho. Mo-CBP4 apresentou-se como duas bandas protéicas de massas moleculares aparentes de 27,5 e 16,5 kDa, em condições não-redutoras, e de 9,8 kDa em condições redutoras. Eletroforese bidimensional desta proteína revelou a presença de dois spots (18,7 e 13,4 kDa), com mesmo ponto isoelétrico (pI de 10,55). Trata-se de uma glicoproteína com 2,85% de carboidratos, não apresentando atividade hemaglutinante. Mo-CBP4 mostrou-se tão eficiente quanto o sulfato de alumínio e potássio na capacidade de coagular material em suspensão na água. A proteína em questão foi resistente à proteólise no teste de digestibilidade in vitro utilizando pepsina, tripsina e quimotripsina. Para avaliar os efeitos antinociceptivo e anti-inflamatório de Mo-CBP4, foi utilizado o modelo de contorções abdominais induzidas pela injeção de ácido acético 0,8% (via i.p.) em camundongos. A proteína, nas doses de 1,0, 3,5 e 10 mg/kg, foi capaz de prevenir as contorções de maneira dose dependente, chegando a 98,9% de inibição na dose de 10 mg/kg. Mo-CBP4 também apresentou atividade antinociceptiva por via oral (10 mg/kg), atingindo uma inibição de 52,9% quando administrada 60 minutos antes da injeção de ácido acético. Mo-CBP4 inibiu o aumento da permeabilidade vascular (89,1%) e a migração leucocitária (60,9%) na dose de 10 mg/kg via i.p. A propriedade antinociceptiva parece ser independente do sítio de interação ao carboidrato N-acetil-D-glucosamina, enquanto que a atividade anti-inflamatória mostrou um decréscimo quando a região de ligação ao carboidrato foi bloqueada. Os resultados apresentados suportam cientificamente o uso popular da M. oleifera e mostram que uma proteína ligante à quitina, Mo-CBP4, está associada aos efeitos antinociceptivo e anti-inflamatório das sementes
10

Biossegurança alimentar da proteína antifúngica Mo-CBP3 de sementes de Moringa oleifera Lam: uma candidata para o desenvolvimento de plantas transgênicas / Food biosecurity Mo- CBP3 antifungal protein Moringa oleifera Lam seeds : a candidate for the development of transgenic plants

Pinto, Clidia Eduarda Moreira January 2014 (has links)
PINTO, Clidia Eduarda Moreira. Biossegurança alimentar da proteína antifúngica Mo-CBP3 de sementes de Moringa oleifera Lam: uma candidata para o desenvolvimento de plantas transgênicas, Fortaleza - CE, 2014. 119 f. Dissertação (Mestrado em Bioquímica) - Centro de Ciências, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza, 2014. / Submitted by Eric Santiago (erichhcl@gmail.com) on 2016-05-20T12:05:40Z No. of bitstreams: 1 2014_dis_cempinto.pdf: 4842222 bytes, checksum: 4eddade7939a6a0bcab415ce2f86bc31 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Nádja Goes (nmoraissoares@gmail.com) on 2016-05-20T12:37:11Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 2014_dis_cempinto.pdf: 4842222 bytes, checksum: 4eddade7939a6a0bcab415ce2f86bc31 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-05-20T12:37:11Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2014_dis_cempinto.pdf: 4842222 bytes, checksum: 4eddade7939a6a0bcab415ce2f86bc31 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014 / Mo-CBP3 is a chitin binding protein purified from Moringa oleifera seeds which has an apparent molecular mass of 18.0 kDa and consists of multiple heterodimeric isoforms. Mo-CBP3 is a highly stable protein that has a broad spectrum of activity against phytopathogenic fungi and maintains its secondary structure and antifungal activity at extreme temperatures and different pH values. Thus, the Mo-CBP3 protein presents itself as a promising tool for the development of transgenic plants resistant to fungi attack. For such purpose, the Mo-CBP3 protein was subjected to food safety tests to ensure the safety of its expression in plants, minimizing the risk to non-target animals, which include human beings. The food safety assessment of the protein followed the two-tiered approach, based on weight of evidences, proposed by International Life Sciences Institute (ILSI). The research evidenced the long history of safe use, supported by scientific literature, of the M. oleifera species, source of Mo-CBP3 protein. In silico analysis did not reveal any identity of Mo-CBP3 with allergenic, toxic and/or antinutritional proteins. Additionally, were not found in the protein potential epitopes able to lead to cross reaction and unleash an allergic response. Identity with allergenic proteins was found only when a window of 80 amino acids was used. Potential sites of N-glycosylation were not found in the mature protein. The protein showed resistance to thermal treatment and digestibility by simulated gastric fluid, but was completely susceptible to digestion in simulated intestinal fluid. In addition, Mo-CBP3 caused no relevant adverse effects to mice subjected to high oral doses from 5 to 2000 mg/kg, showing its innocuous nature. Based on the food safety approach proposed by ILSI is not expected any risk associated to use of Mo-CBP3 protein for humans and other monogastric animals. / Mo¬-CBP3 é uma proteína ligante à quitina, purificada de sementes de Moringa oleifera, com massa molecular aparente de 18,0 kDa, consistindo de múltiplas isoformas heterodiméricas. Mo-CBP3 é uma proteína altamente estável, que possui amplo espectro de ação contra fungos fitopatogênicos e mantém sua estrutura secundária e atividade antifúngica em extremos de temperaturas e diferentes valores de pH. Dessa forma, a proteína Mo-CBP3 se apresenta como uma ferramenta promissora para o desenvolvimento de plantas transgênicas resistentes ao ataque de fungos. Para tanto, Mo-CBP3 foi submetida a testes de biossegurança alimentar, visando garantir sua utilização através da expressão em plantas, minimizando, assim, os riscos para animais não alvo, incluindo o homem. A avaliação de biossegurança alimentar da proteína seguiu o teste de duas etapas, baseado em pesos de evidência, proposto pelo Instituto Internacional de Ciências da Vida (ILSI). A pesquisa evidenciou o longo histórico de uso seguro, fundamentado em dados científicos, da espécie M. oleifera, fonte da proteína Mo-CBP3. Análises in silico mostraram que Mo-CBP3 não possui qualquer identidade com proteínas alergênicas, tóxicas e/ou antinutricionais. Adicionalmente, não foram encontrados na proteína epítopos potencialmente capazes de promover reação cruzada e desencadear uma resposta alergênica. Identidade com proteínas alergênicas (> 35%) foi encontrada apenas quando uma janela de 80 aminoácidos foi utilizada. Sítios potenciais de N-glicosilação não foram encontrados na proteína madura. A proteína mostrou resistência ao tratamento térmico e à digestibilidade por fluido gástrico simulado, mas foi completamente susceptível à digestão em fluido intestinal simulado. Em adição, Mo-CBP3 não causou efeitos adversos relevantes em camundongos submetidos a doses elevadas de 5 a 2000 mg/kg, via oral, evidenciando seu caráter inócuo. A partir da avaliação de biossegurança alimentar proposta pelo ILSI não é esperado qualquer risco associado ao consumo da proteína Mo-CBP3 pelo homem e demais animais monogástricos.

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