This thesis tackles a conspicuous absence in current scholarship on ancient theatre. Amid the recent scholarly interest in the rapid expansion of the theatre industry from the late fifth-century BC onwards, no study has been made of a central, defining even, element of ancient Greek drama at that time – the chorus. Instead, what we find is a widespread assumption concerning the fourth-century dramatic chorus, particularly with regard to the comic chorus, still prevalent in today’s scholarship: ‘The history of the dramatic chorus is one of decline both quantitatively and qualitatively’, states one of the more detailed recent reviews of the evidence for dramatic choral culture in the ancient world (Csapo and Slater 1995:349). The thesis focuses on the literary sources available to us concerning fourth-century dramatic choruses in Athens. The material is divided into three sections. The first section addresses the important testimony of Aristotle concerning the choruses of his day, particularly in the Poetics (chapter one). The second section analyses the choral text in the (probably fourth-century) Rhesus (chapter two), the interpolated choral passages in the Iphigenia at Aulis and Seven Against Thebes (chapter three), and the choruses of Aristophanes’ Assemblywomen and Wealth, as well as extant fragments of fourth-century comedy (chapter four). The third section is a survey of how the chorus is used in a wide range of fourth-century texts (chapter five), and gives special attention to Plato’s somewhat idiosyncratic presentation of the chorus in his works (chapter six). These analyses show 1) that ‘decline’ is an inappropriate term to describe the development of the chorus and 2) the creativity with which the chorus is used and thought about in fourth-century drama and society. The thesis aims to provide an elucidation of dramatic choral activity in the fourth century and to provoke further interrogation of the assumptions commonly held about the development of both the ancient chorus and ancient drama as a whole.

This is a study of love (erōs) in Plato’s Symposium. It’s a study undertaken over three chapters, each of which serves as a stepping stone for the following and addresses one of three primary aims. First: to provide an interpretation of Plato’s favored theory of erōs in the Symposium, or as it’s referred to here, a theory of Platonic love. This theory is understood to be ultimately concerned with a practice of living which, if developed correctly, may come to constitute the life most worth living for a human being. On this interpretation, Platonic love is the desire for Beauty, ultimately for the sake of eudaimonic immortality, manifested through productive activity. Second: to offer a reading of the Symposium which attends to the work’s literary elements, especially characterization and narrative structure, as partially constitutive of Plato’s philosophical thought on erōs. Here it’s suggested that Platonic love is concerned with seeking and producing truly virtuous action and true poetry. This reading positions us to see that a correctly progressing and well-practiced Platonic love is illustrated in the character of the philosopher Socrates, who is known and followed for his bizarre displays of virtue and whom Alcibiades crowns over either Aristophanes or Agathon as the wisest and most beautiful poet at the Symposium. Third: to account for how to love a person Platonically. Contra Gregory Vlastos’ influential critical interpretation, it’s here argued that the Platonic lover is able to really love a person: to really love a person Platonically is to seek jointly for Beauty; it is to work together as co-practitioners in the art of love. The art of Platonic love is set up in this way to be explored as a practice potentially constitutive of the life most worth living for a human being.

The thesis focuses on the theory of tragedy in Germany around 1800, and has two primary aims: to demonstrate the importance of idealist thought for contemporary approaches to tragedy and the tragic; and to revise the intellectual historiography of the classic phase in German letters. It traces reflection on Greek tragedy from the Querelle des anciens et des modernes in France around 1700 through the aesthetic systems formulated in Germany around 1800. Two intellectual developments are emphasized: the historicist consciousness that develops throughout the eighteenth century and places Greek tragedy more radically in its cultural context than ever before; and the idealist philosophy of art, which seeks to restore a measure of universality to the ancient genre, seeing it as the manifestation of a timeless quality of ‘the tragic.’ These two impulses, historicizing and universalizing, it is argued, are fundamental to modern understanding of Greek tragedy. The genealogical method seeks to establish a greater continuity with earlier eighteenth-century thought than is generally recognized, and to refute the teleologies that dominate accounts of idealist thought. A reconstruction of the central texts of Schiller, Schelling, Hegel, and Hölderlin reveals that the theory of tragedy around 1800 is in large part a reflection on history, an effort to understand how ancient literature can be meaningful in modernity. Greek tragedy becomes the ground for an engagement with the pastness of antiquity and its possible presence. Idealist theories, far from dissolving particularity in abstraction, seek a mediation between philological historicism and philosophical universalism in considering Greek tragedy. A genealogy of the tragic suggests that such mediation remains a vital task for scholars of the Classics.

This thesis aims to contribute to the study of the role of the civic past in the public discourse of fourth-century Athens. It does so by close examination of the surviving public speeches of Demosthenes and Aeschines, arguing that presentation of the city’s history in front of mass audiences held singular persuasive potential for public speakers, allowing them to furnish with a more meaningful ethical context both the discussion of issues addressed in the Assembly and the arguments advanced in public trials. Deploying the past convincingly in such settings redounded to speakers’ personal credibility and authority, and Demosthenes and Aeschines – who offer rare examples of paired opposing speeches from the same trials – are selected as ‘case-study’ orators in order to illustrate: i) the importance of the invoking of Athenian historical models, both distant and recent, to Demosthenes’ self-fashioning as a politician; and ii) the extent to which orators made the very question of how to cite the past in public a stake in their wider struggle for political pre-eminence, seeking to be recognized as the ‘true’ and authoritative mediator of this material. These interests are reflected in the organization of the thesis. After an Introduction which discusses key preliminaries, Chapter One argues for Demosthenes’ early recognition of the potential of historical illustration for wider self-presentation, honed over the course of his Assembly career (Chapter Two) to become essential to his self-casting as Athens’s leading statesman. Chapter Three compares Demosthenic and Aeschinean approaches to citing the past in court, in two prosecutions from the mid-340s, and Chapters Four and Five – focusing on the high-profile Embassy and Crown trials – move to argue the importance of each politician’s contestation of the other’s versions of history to their battle over the reputations arising from their careers to date. The Conclusion summarizes, and reflects on some methodological aspects with a view to further work.

In this thesis, I argue that Sophoclean characters take shape through a number of different kinds of interaction. On the most basic level, interaction occurs between characters; interactions between characters, however, provide a framework for interactions between those characters and a variety of more abstract concepts. These interactions, by allowing characters to situate themselves with respect to concepts such as, for example, the social roles which shape the society of the play, provide a more complex picture of the personalities depicted onstage; a fuller view of Antigone’s personality, for example, emerges both from her own interactions with the concept of sisterhood and from the differences between her interactions with that concept and Ismene’s. At the same time, these interactions involve the audience in both the construction and the interpretation of Sophoclean characters; as they watch figures interact with each other onstage, the audience, in turn, interact with their own prior knowledge of the concepts which drive the characters of a play. In my five chapters, I discuss five different areas of interaction. In my first chapter, I look at interactions between characters and myth, arguing that Sophoclean characters emerge out of a tension between novelty and familiarity. In my second chapter, I discuss the interactions between characters and their social roles, looking at the problem of appropriate role performance as it applies to Sophoclean characters. My third chapter deals with characters and their memories; I argue that Sophoclean characters shape and are shaped by their memories of past events depending on shifting present circumstances. In my fourth chapter, I discuss the interactions between characters and the passage of time and suggest that Sophoclean figures are characterized by the ways in which they move through time and respond to its passage. In my final chapter, I look at the use of general statements by Sophoclean characters, arguing that the ability of characters to generalize successfully provides a useful measure of their ability to function in the world of the play.

Esta dissertação dedica-se ao estudo da persuasão nos discursos proferidos por Odisseu no canto XIV da Odisseia, levando em consideração a interação de três elementos:o orador, o auditório e a argumentação. É seu objetivo refletir sobre qual tese Odisseu busca compartilhar com seu público, Eumeu, e as estratégias de que se vale para atingir esse fim. / This dissertation is a study about the persuasion in Odysseus´ speeches in Odyssey XIV, observing three elements: the orator, the audience and the argumentation. My target is make a reflection about what idea Odysseus wants to share with his audience, Eumaios, and the strategies to do it.

Aquele que se empenha no estudo da Língua Grega, logo perceberá que tem diante de si um grande sistema lingüístico composto por elementos enriquecidos de significação. A riqueza das noções e das idéias que nela estão presentes e os recursos que oferece tornam-se mais evidentes e fascinantes à medida que a respeito dela refletimos. Quanto mais profundamente for possível conhecê-la, mais fica indubitável a sua coesão e a sua coerência. Através de sua estrutura complexa, é possível reconhecer qual a intenção do escritor que dela fez uso e a dimensão de seus argumentos, pois, quando realiza as escolhas formais para a expressão escrita, ele as fará em harmonia com a mensagem que pretende transmitir. Desse modo, os termos possuirão seus motivos e seus objetivos, tanto quanto o discurso que estabelecem. Não foi sem razão que o Cristianismo obteve divulgação tão ampla em seus dias primitivos. Os apóstolos perceberam que a mensagem cristã poderia ser mais bem propagada através de um idioma que não só ?portasse? os ensinos de Cristo para o mundo afora, mas que também pudesse representá-los de forma arrazoada. A Língua Grega, em especial, a Língua Grega que Alexandre Magno tornou comum (h( koinh\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ glw=tta) a todo o mundo conhecido ocidental antigo, atendia a tais anseios; os evangelistas reconheceram que ela permitia uma difusão doutrinária que atingiria não só o espírito, mas também a mente humana racional do mundo helenizado. Comum e adaptado a todo o povo, mesmo no período do Império Romano, o grego era a língua através da qual a recomendação de Cristo, registrada em Marcos 16.15, poderia ser cumprida: kai. ei=pen auvtoi/j\\ poreuqe,ntej eivj to.n ko,smon a[panta khru,xate to. euvagge,lion pa,sh| th/| kti,seiÅ e disse-lhes: tendo ido ao mundo todo, anunciai o evangelho a toda criatura. Se alguém no Cristianismo aproveitou-se das possibilidades lingüísticas disponíveis nessa língua para expandir suas doutrinas, certamente o apóstolo Paulo é o indicado. Ele é, por excelência, o apologeta cristão do primeiro século. Em seu afã, procura apresentar argumentos de que o Cristianismo é a absoluta sabedoria (1Coríntios 1:17-25, 30; 2:1,4-8; Efésios 3.10; Colossenses 2:27-28) e que oferece respostas tanto às questões relativas à origem (Efésios 3.9; Colossenses 3.10) quanto às concernentes à finalidade (Romanos 8.14-19; Efésios 1.1-6, 11, 12; Gálatas 4.4-6; Filipenses 2.14,15) humanas. Entretanto, é provável que o exegeta encontre dificuldades para a compreensão dos enunciados caso os traços aspectuais e modais não sejam considerados de modo adequado. A Língua Grega, observada a partir de seu próprio funcionamento interno, é ferramenta hermenêutica de extrema importância a fim de que os significados não se percam nem em traduções descomprometidas com o sistema da língua original, nem em análises superficiais do texto. Por essa razão, este trabalho visa a oferecer uma tradução linear, colada ao texto, tomando como exemplo a Epístola de Paulo aos Efésios, levando em consideração os matizes gramaticais contidos no texto grego, sobretudo no que se refere ao verbo e seus traços: o modo e o aspecto; e, no que se refere ao léxico e suas alternativas de significado. Considerando que as traduções até então encontradas na Língua Portuguesa não possuem tal preocupação, os desdobramentos disso são diretamente observados na imperfeita compreensão dos textos. Apesar de ter sido escrita em tamanho relativamente pequeno (seis capítulos), a Epístola possui número suficiente de ocorrências verbais (328) e recursos lingüísticos bastantes que permitem reflexão significativa. / Those who endeavor in the study of the Greek language will soon realize that they are facing a large linguistic system composed of elements that are rich in meaning. The wealth of notions and ideas therein and the resources offered by this language become more evident and fascinating as you reflect about it. The deeper you get to know it, the more unquestionable its cohesion and coherence become. Through its complex structure, it is possible to identify the intention of the writer who used it and the scope of his arguments, for when he makes the formal choices in writing, the author does it in harmony with the message he intends to convey. Therefore, the terms will embody his reasons and objectives, as much as the discourse they form. It is not without reason that Christianity was so largely divulged in its early days. The apostles realized that the Christian message would be better delivered through a language that not only carried Christ\'s teachings to the world, but would also represent them in a rational way. The Greek language, more particularly the Greek language Alexander the Great spread (h( koinh\\ glw=tta) all over the ancient known western world, accomplished such aims; the evangelists recognized that it allowed a doctrinal dissemination that would reach not only the soul, but also the rational human mind of the hellenized world. Common and adapted to all the people, even under the Roman Empire, Greek was the language through which Christ\'s recommendation, documented in Mark 16.15, could be fulfilled: kai. ei=pen auvtoi/j\\ poreuqe,ntej eivj to.n ko,smon a[panta khru,xate to. euvagge,lion pa,sh| th/| kti,seiÅ and said to them: Go into all the world and proclaim the good news to the whole creation. If anybody in Christianity took advantage of the linguistic possibilities available in this language to expand his doctrines, it was certainly the apostle Paul. He is, par excellence, the Christian apologist of the first century. In his eagerness, he argues that Christianity is the absolute wisdom (1Corinthians 1 :17-25, 30; 2:1,4-8; Ephesians 3.10; Colossians 2.:27-28) and that it answers both questions concerning the human origin (Ephesians 3.9; Colossians 3.10) and those concerning the human ends (Romans 8.14-19; Ephesians 1.1-6, 11,12; Galatians 4.4-6; Philippians 2.14,15). However, the exegete may find it difficult to understand the statements if the aspect and mood characteristics are not appropriately considered. Observed from its own internal functioning, the Greek language is an extremely important hermeneutic tool to prevent the loss of meaning, either in translations unconcerned with the system of the original language or in superficial text analyses. Therefore, this work aims at offering a linear translation, close to the text, taking as example the Epistle of Paul to the Ephesians. It will consider the grammatical nuances present in the Greek text, especially those concerning the verb and its characteristics: mood and aspect; and those concerning the lexicon and its alternatives of meaning. As the translations so far available in Portuguese do not have such concern, the consequences can be directly verified in the imperfect comprehension of the texts. Although the Epistle is relatively short in size (six chapters), it contains a sufficient number of verbal occurrences (328) and enough linguistic resources to allow a significant study.

Por meio da análise das ações de dois heróis de peças do teatro Ático antigo, o presente trabalho elabora uma comparação entre a construção de dois tipos de comportamento marginal, e entre as diferentes consequências advindas dessas condutas que se colocam à margem da sociedade dramática. Nesse sentido, a partir da caracterização da marginalidade do herói personagem-título, da tragédia de Eurípides, Hipólito, demonstrarei de que modo a escolha do rapaz pela virgindade está intrinsecamente ligada às consequências desgraçadas que se abatem sobre a casa de seu pai, Teseu. De fato, considero que porque Hipólito escolhe deliberadamente, ou seja, sem coerção física ou mental, viver à margem dos costumes de sua comunidade dramática, ele é completamente responsável por desencadear a vingança de Afrodite que arruinará a vida de sua família. Do mesmo modo, através da delimitação da atitude marginal do herói Diceópolis, da comédia de Aristófanes, Acarnenses, elaborarei de que modo da escolha que o personagem faz pela paz privada, transgressora em relação à decisão da maioria dos cidadãos pela continuidade da guerra, decorrem as consequências etílicas, sexuais e gastronômicas com as quais ele arca. Assim, o objetivo desse trabalho diz respeito a entrelaçar de que modo Hipólito é desgraçado por causa de suas ações marginais e o porquê Diceópolis é feliz graças à marginalidade de suas ações. E, em última instância, pretendo explicitar por quais vias tanto o personagem da tragédia quanto o personagem da comédia são responsáveis pelos frutos que colhem de seus modos de vida à margem. / Through an analysis of the actions of two heroes present in plays from the Ancient Attic drama, this work draws a comparison between the construction of two types of marginal behavior, as well as between the different consequences resulting from these behaviors. In this sense, following the characterization of the marginality of Hippolytus, the homonymous hero of Euripides tragedy, I shall demonstrate how the young mans choice for virginity is intrinsically related to the disgraceful consequences that befall Theseuss house. In fact, I consider that because Hippolytus deliberately chooses (i.e. without physical or mental coercion) to live outside his dramatic community refusing its customs, he is completely responsible for Aphrodites revenge, which ruins his family. In the same way, by delimiting the marginal attitude of Dikaiopolis, from Aristophanes comedy, Acharnians, I shall elucidate the manner in which the characters choice for private peace, transgressive of the majoritys decisions for the continuity of the war, is followed by ethylic, sexual and gastronomic consequences he is faced with. Hence, the aim of this thesis is the intertwining of the way Hippolytus is disgraceful because of his marginal actions and the reason why Dikaiopolis is happy thanks to this very marginality. And, lastly, I intend to cast light upon the ways by which both the tragedy and comedys characters are responsible for whatever they reap from their marginal ways of life.

Esta pesquisa é basicamente desenvolvida em duas partes: (i) um capítulo introdutório, discutindo os principais problemas que envolvem a obra, além de algumas informações que julgamos relevantes acerca de alguns personagens que figuram no livro II; e (ii) a tradução do livro II das Helênicas. Em ambas as duas partes inserimos notas de rodapé de natureza histórica, linguística e/ou literária que contribuem para o esclarecimento de aspectos relevantes do texto. Na primeira parte desta pesquisa, fazemos um breve resumo das Helênicas, com ênfase no livro II. Com base na leitura da bibliografia crítica, comentamos brevemente algumas das principais questões em torno da obra: (i) a questão da composição; (ii) a suposição de que a primeira parte das Helênicas seja uma continuidade da História da Guerra do Peloponeso de Tucídides; (iii) nexos com seus predecessores: Heródoto e Tucídides; (iv) o caráter didático de cunho moral das Helênicas e, finalmente, (v) a repercussão e receptividade das Helênicas na Antiguidade e nos estudos mais recentes. Para a tradução e o estudo do texto grego, utilizamos a edição de E. C. Marchant (Oxford Classical Texts, 2008) / This research is basically divided in two parts: (i) an introductory chapter, discussing the main issues concerning the work, and providing additionally some biographical details about the main characters of Book II; and (ii) the translation into Portuguese of Book II of Xenophon\'s Hellenica. The study is enriched by footnotes with historical, linguistic and/or literary informations in order to clarify relevant aspects of the text. In the introductory chapter, we present a brief summary of Xenophon\'s Hellenica emphasizing the content of Book II. Based on the recent literature on Xenophon, we comment briefly some important issues concerning the work as a whole, such as (i) the problem of its composition and arrangement; (ii) the assumption that the first part of the Hellenica consists in a continuation of Thucydides\' History of the Peloponnesian War; (iii) Xenophon\'s relationship with his predecessors: Herodotus and Thucydides; (iv) the ethical and didactical purpose of the Hellenica, and finally (v) the reception of the Hellenica in Antiquity and in the modern and contemporary literature on Xenophon. For the translation and the study of the Greek text we have used EC Marchant\'s edition (Oxford Classical Texts, 2008)

Esta pesquisa é basicamente desenvolvida em duas partes: (i) um capítulo introdutório, discutindo os principais problemas que envolvem a obra, além de algumas informações que julgamos relevantes acerca de alguns personagens que figuram no livro II; e (ii) a tradução do livro II das Helênicas. Em ambas as duas partes inserimos notas de rodapé de natureza histórica, linguística e/ou literária que contribuem para o esclarecimento de aspectos relevantes do texto. Na primeira parte desta pesquisa, fazemos um breve resumo das Helênicas, com ênfase no livro II. Com base na leitura da bibliografia crítica, comentamos brevemente algumas das principais questões em torno da obra: (i) a questão da composição; (ii) a suposição de que a primeira parte das Helênicas seja uma continuidade da História da Guerra do Peloponeso de Tucídides; (iii) nexos com seus predecessores: Heródoto e Tucídides; (iv) o caráter didático de cunho moral das Helênicas e, finalmente, (v) a repercussão e receptividade das Helênicas na Antiguidade e nos estudos mais recentes. Para a tradução e o estudo do texto grego, utilizamos a edição de E. C. Marchant (Oxford Classical Texts, 2008) / This research is basically divided in two parts: (i) an introductory chapter, discussing the main issues concerning the work, and providing additionally some biographical details about the main characters of Book II; and (ii) the translation into Portuguese of Book II of Xenophon\'s Hellenica. The study is enriched by footnotes with historical, linguistic and/or literary informations in order to clarify relevant aspects of the text. In the introductory chapter, we present a brief summary of Xenophon\'s Hellenica emphasizing the content of Book II. Based on the recent literature on Xenophon, we comment briefly some important issues concerning the work as a whole, such as (i) the problem of its composition and arrangement; (ii) the assumption that the first part of the Hellenica consists in a continuation of Thucydides\' History of the Peloponnesian War; (iii) Xenophon\'s relationship with his predecessors: Herodotus and Thucydides; (iv) the ethical and didactical purpose of the Hellenica, and finally (v) the reception of the Hellenica in Antiquity and in the modern and contemporary literature on Xenophon. For the translation and the study of the Greek text we have used EC Marchant\'s edition (Oxford Classical Texts, 2008)