O crescimento do emprego de materiais compósitos e a flexibilização dos processos de manufatura permitem a adoção deste tipo de material em diversos casos que antes não eram explorados. Este trabalho investiga técnicas de otimização aplicáveis a painéis compósitos laminados e com reforçadores co-curados. Painéis reforçados são amplamente utilizados na indústria aeronáutica por conferirem resistência a carregamentos no plano e de flexão à elementos de baixo peso estrutural que são empregados em estruturas aeronáuticas típicas, como fuselagens. Por meio da otimização paramétrica que adota como variáveis de projeto parâmetros pré-definidos da estrutura, a geometria e posicionamento dos reforçadores, bem como a orientação das lâminas dos painéis e reforçadores compósitos são otimizadas. O problema de otimização é formulado como a maximização da carga de flambagem do painel, calculada através de um programa de Elementos Finitos comercial (Abaqus), sujeito a restrições de massa, máxima deformação admissível e ordem de empilhamento das camadas dentro do laminado. O método de Otimização Discreta de Material (ODM) é utilizado para parametrizar as variáveis de orientação do laminado, de modo a tentar reduzir a ocorrência de mínimos locais dentre as soluções encontradas pelo otimizador, o algoritmo Método das Assíntotas Móveis. Esta metodologia de implementação do problema de otimização é comparada com técnicas baseadas em Algoritmo Genético e variáveis contínuas de orientação das fibras. Os resultados obtidos por meio da metodologia proposta são comparados com aqueles de um painel reforçado representativo com geometria e sequência de empilhamento típicos e por fim, são apresentadas as vantagens e desvantagens entre as metodologias. Em seguida, a utilização de otimização topológica para o projeto de estruturas compósitas é explorada, considerando como função objetivo a maximização da rigidez do painel, sujeita a restrições de volume e de tensão. Neste tipo de otimização, não presume-se a existência de uma distribuição de material fixa na estrutura, com material podendo ser inserido ou retirado de dentro do domínio. O desenvolvimento de técnicas de manufatura com a deposição automática de fibras pré-impregnadas com matriz torna possível este tipo de projeto. Neste caso, para a modelagem do material compósito um elemento finito de casca de 8 nós é implementado e associado à técnica de ODM, de modo a otimizar a distribuição de material no domínio, juntamente com o empilhamento das camadas do laminado nas regiões que contém material. Este método é aplicado em diversos casos exemplos, com formulações de otimização e condições de carregamento diferentes. Ao final, um painel típico aeronáutico é conceitualmente projetado e os resultados são discutidos e comparados com uma configuração típica. / The increased use of composite materials and flexible manufacturing processes allows the application of this type of material in many cases not generally explored. This work investigates optimization techniques applied to composite panels with co-cured stiffeners. Reinforced panels are widely used in the aircraft industry to confer resistance under in-plane and bending loads for lightweight structural elements that are employed in typical aircraft structures such as fuselages. Through parametric optimization which considers as design variables pre-defined structure parameters, stringers geometric dimensions, their positioning, and also the stacking sequence of laminated composite material employed for the panel and stringers layups are optimized. The optimization problem is formulated as the maximization of the panel buckling load obtained through commercial Finite Element software (Abaqus), subjected to constraints such as mass, maximum allowable strains, and stacking order of the laminate. The Discrete Material Optimization (DMO) method is used to parameterize the laminate orientation variables in order to try reduce the occurrence of local minima in the solution found by the optimizer, the Method of Moving Assimptotes (MMA) algorithm. This implementation of the optimization problem is compared with Genetic Algorithm and continuous fiber orientation variables methodologies. The results obtained from the proposed methodology are compared with those from a representative reinforced panel, with typical topology and lay-up sequences. Then, benefits and drawbacks of these methodologies are presented. The design of composite structures by employing topology optimization became possible through the development of manufacturing techniques such as fiber placement, since this kind of optimization does not require a previously fixed material distribution inside of the structure. In this work, this possibility is explored by considering as objective function the mass minimization subjected to stress constraints. For composite modeling, an eight-node finite element shell element is implemented and then associated to the DMO technique, in order to optimize the material distribution within the domain and also the layup in regions where material was inserted. This methodology is then applied in various example cases, with different optimization formulations and loading conditions. Concluding, a typical aeronautical panel is conceptually designed and the results discussed and compared with a baseline panel configuration.

O presente trabalho consiste basicamente no desenvolvimento de um programa de engenharia denominado SAJ (sistema de análise de juntas) capaz de realizar uma análise detalhada do comportamento de dois dos diversos tipos de juntas coladas existentes, a junta simples colada (\"single lap joint\") e a junta dupla colada (\"double lap joint\"). Sendo que foram analisadas juntas coladas com aderentes de material compósito ou, então, compostas de aderentes de compósitos e metal. O programa de engenharia desenvolvido possibilita o cálculo das tensões, dos esforços e dos deslocamentos nessas juntas. Para validar o referido programa, os resultados obtidos do mesmo foram confrontados com os resultados obtidos para condições semelhantes utilizando \"softwares\" comerciais de elementos finitos e de cálculo de juntas. Após a validação do programa, são apresentados alguns estudos de fatores que influenciam na resistência da junta colada, verificando a influência do comprimento de \"overlap\" (sobreposição), a rigidez do adesivo e a espessura da camada adesiva. Também é apresentada uma análise de falha dos aderentes de compósito evidenciando assim, as potencialidades e limitações desta ferramenta computacional para a área de desenvolvimento de produto. / This work consists on the development of software called SAJ which can analyze a bonded joint behavior in detail, not only for single lap joint, but also, for double lap joint. These joints could be made of composite/composite materials or metal/composite as adherentes. The software developed can calculate the joints stresses, loads and displacements. The results obtained are compared to the results obtained using commercial software and the same problems proposed. After the validation of SAJ, some studies were performed in order to determine how some characteristics affect the joint stresses distribution as overlap length, adhesive elastic modulus, adhesive thickness and a failure analysis of composite adherents showing the potential and limitation of this computational tool for the product development area.

Devido a suas vantagens comparadas aos métodos tradicionais de união mecânica, a utilização de juntas coladas estruturais só tende a crescer, entretanto, devido suas propriedades e modos de falha dependerem de diversos parâmetros (tratamento superficial, geometria, material, condições de tralho, etc.) uma utilização mais ampla desta técnica ainda é restrita pela ausência de modelos de falhas confiáveis. O presente trabalho consiste na apresentação de métodos para fabricação de juntas coladas em material compósito e verificação da influência da espessura da camada adesiva na resistência de juntas simples coladas (single lap joints) submetidas à tração. São também apresentados métodos para fabricação dos aderentes, corpos de prova de adesivo puro para ensaios de caracterização e realização de ensaios mecânicos para obtenção das propriedades mecânicas tanto dos aderentes quanto do adesivo. As propriedades mecânicas dos aderentes e do adesivo foram obtidas através de ensaios realizados em uma máquina de tração universal com o auxílio da técnica de correlação digital de imagem, e a obtenção das energias críticas de resistência à fratura (GIc,GIIc) da camada adesiva foram calculadas através de ensaios Double Cantilever Beam (DCB) e End Notched Flexure (ENF). Foram estudados métodos para gerar falha coesiva nas juntas adesivas, sendo que o melhor método encontrado foi o de tratamento superficial dos aderentes com jateamento abrasivo seguido pela limpeza superficial com acetona. O controle preciso da espessura da camada adesiva foi alcançado através do desenvolvimento de um dispositivo de fácil construção, compostos por suportes de madeira, hastes e linhas de nylon. Nos ensaios em juntas coladas foi constatado uma relação inversamente proporcional entre a espessura da camada adesiva e a resistência máxima suportada pela junta, ou seja, quanto maior a espessura do adesivo menor sua resistência. Os métodos aqui apresentados foram os resultados de vários meses de estudo e compreensão das normas e técnicas disponíveis na literatura, o aprimoramento das técnicas foram frutos de um ciclo compostos por fabricação, testes e análise de resultados. / Amongst the joining techniques, adhesively bonding joints are one of the most commonly applied nowadays. However, a lack of reliable failure criteria still exists, limiting in this way a more widespread application of adhesively bonded joints in principal load-bearing structural applications. An accurate strength prediction of the adhesively bonded joints is essential to decrease the amount of expensive testing at the design stage. This work consists to show methods for manufacturing single lap joints and to verify the adhesive thickness influence on the joint resistance. The manufacturing process of the composite adherends and adhesives for bulk tests was also covered. The mechanical properties of the adherends and bulk adhesive were performed on a universal testing machine with assistance of a digital image correlation (DIC) technique. The fracture toughness energy release rates (GIc,GIIc) of the adhesive layer were obtained respectively through Double Cantilever Beam (DCB) and End Notched Flexure (ENF) tests. Cohesive failure was achieved by grit blasting the adherents followed by cleaning with acetone. A constant adhesive thickness was guaranteed by placing nylon fishing lines between the adherents. Single lap joints tests showed that the joint resistance decrease with increasing adhesive thickness.

Proposed in this thesis is a methodology to enable yacht designers to develop innovative structural concepts, even when the loads experienced by the yacht are highly uncertain, and has been implemented in sufficient detail to confirm the feasibility of this new approach. The new approach is required because today??s yachts are generally lighter, getting larger and going faster. The question arises as to how far the design envelope can be pushed with the highly uncertain loads experienced by the structure? What are the effects of this uncertainty and what trade-offs in the structural design will best meet the overall design objectives? The new approach provides yacht designers with a means of developing innovative structural solutions that accommodate high levels of uncertainty, but still focus on best meeting design objectives constrained by trade-offs in weight, safety and cost. The designer??s preferences have a large, and not always intuitive, influence on the necessary design trade-offs. This in turn invites research into ways to formally integrate decision algorithms into knowledge-based design systems. A lean and robust design system has been achieved by developing a set of tools which are blanketed by a fuzzy decision algorithm. The underlying tool set includes costing, material optimisation and safety analysis. Central to this is the innovative way in which the system allows non-discrete variables to be utilized along with new subjective measures of structural reliability based on load path algorithms and topological (shape) optimisation. The originality in this work is the development of a knowledge-based framework and methodology that uses a fuzzy decision making tool to navigate through a design space and address trade-offs between high level objectives when faced with limited design detail and uncertainty. In so doing, this work introduces the use of topological optimisation and load path theory to the structural design of yachts as a means of overcoming the historical focus of knowledge-based systems and to ensure that innovative solutions can still evolve. A sensitivity analysis is also presented which can quantify a design??s robustness in a system that focuses on a global approach to the measurement of objectives such as cost, weight and safety. Results from the application of this system show new and innovative structural solutions evolving that take into account the designers preferences regarding cost, weight and safety while accommodating uncertain parameters such as the loading experienced by the hull.

The application of static shape control was investigated in this thesis particularly for a composite plate configuration using piezoelectric actuators. A new electro-mechanically coupled mathematical model was developed for the analysis and is based on a third order displacement field coupled with a layerwise electric potential concept. This formulation, TODL, is then implemented into a finite element program. The mathematical model represents an improvement over existing formulations used to model intelligent structures using piezoelectric materials as actuators and sensors. The reason is TODL does not only account for the electro-mechanical coupling within the adaptive material, it also accounts for the full structural coupling in the entire structure due to the piezoelectric material being attached to the host structure. The other significant improvement of TODL is that it is applicable to structures which are relatively thick whereas existing models are based on thin beam / plate theories. Consequently, transverse shearing effects are automatically accounted for in TODL and unlike first order shear deformation theories, shear correction factors are not required. The second major section of this thesis uses the TODL formulation in static shape control. Shape control is defined here as the determination of shape control parameters, including actuation voltage and actuator orientation configuration, such that the structure that is activated using these parameters will conform as close as possible to the desired shape. Several shape control strategies and consequently algorithms were developed here. Initial investigations in shape control has revealed many interesting issues which have been used in later investigations to improve shape controllability and also led to the development of improved algorithms. For instance, the use of discrete actuator patches has led to greater shape controllability and the use of slopes and curvatures as additional control criteria have resulted in significant reduction in internal stresses. The significance of optimizing actuator orientation and its relation to piezoelectric anisotropy in improving shape controllability has also been presented. Thus the major facets of shape control has been brought together and the algorithms developed here represent a comprehensive strategy to perform static shape control.

Fiber reinforced composite materials are widely used in aerospace, mechanical, civil and other industries because of their high strength-to-weight and stiffness-to-weight ratios. However, composite structures are highly prone to impact damage. Possible types of defect or damage in composite include matrix cracking, fiber breakage, and delamination between plies. In addition, delamination in a laminated composite is usually invisible. It is very diffcult to detect it while the component is in service and this will eventually lead to catastrophic failure of the structure. Such damages may be caused by dropped tools and ground handling equipments. Damage in a composite structure normally starts as a tiny speckle and gradually grows with the increase in load to some degree. However, when such damage reaches a threshold level, serious accident can occur. Hence, it is important to have up-to-date information on the integrity of the structure to ensure the safety and reliability of composite components, which require frequent inspections to identify and quantify damage that might have occurred even during manufacturing, transportation or storage. How to identify a damage using the obtained information from a damaged composite structure is one of the most pivotal research objectives. Various forms of structural damage cause variations in structural mechanical characteristics, and this property is extensively employed for damage detection. Existing traditional non-destructive inspection techniques utilize a variety of methods such as acoustic emission, C-scan, thermography, shearography and Moir interferometry etc. Each of these techniques is limited in accuracy and applicability. Most of these methods require access to the structure.They also require a significant amount of equipment and expertise to perform inspection. The inspections are typically based on a schedule rather than based on the condition of the structure. Furthermore, the cost associated with these traditional non-destructive techniques can be rather prohibitive. Therefore, there is a need to develop a cost-effective, in-service, diagnostic system for monitoring structural integrity in composite structures. Structural health monitoring techniques based on dynamic response is being used for several years. Changes in lower natural frequencies and mode shapes with their special derivatives or stiffness/ exibility calculation from the measured displacement mode shapes are the most common parameters used in identification of damage. But the sensitivity of these parameters for incipient damage is not satisfactory. On the other hand, for in service structural health monitoring, direct use of structural response histories are more suitable. However, they are very few works reported in the literature on these aspects, especially for composite structures, where higher order modes are the ones that get normally excited due to the presence of flaws. Due to the absence of suitable direct procedure, damage identification from response histories needs inverse mapping; like artificial neural network. But, the main diffculty in such mapping using whole response histories is its high dimensionality. Different general purpose dimension reduction procedures; like principle component analysis or indepen- dent component analysis are available in the literature. As these dimensionally reduced spaces may loose the output uniqueness, which is an essential requirement for neural network mapping, suitable algorithms for extraction of damage signature from these re- sponse histories are not available. Alternatively, fusion of trained networks for different partitioning of the damage space or different number of dimension reduction technique, can overcome this issue efficiently. In addition, coordination of different networks trained with different partitioning for training and testing samples, training algorithms, initial conditions, learning and momentum rates, architectures and sequence of training etc., are some of the factors that improves the mapping efficiency of the networks. The applications of smart materials have drawn much attention in aerospace, civil, mechanical and even bioengineering. The emerging field of smart composite structures offers the promise of truly integrated health and usage monitoring, where a structure can sense and adapt to their environment, loading conditions and operational requirements, and materials can self-repair when damaged. The concept of structural health monitoring using smart materials relies on a network of sensors and actuators integrated with the structure. This area shows great promise as it will be possible to monitor the structural condition of a structure, throughout its service lifetime. Integrating intelligence into the structures using such networks is an interesting field of research in recent years. Some materials that are being used for this purpose include piezoelectric, magnetostrictive and fiber-optic sensors. Structural health monitoring using, piezoelectric or fiber-optic sensors are available in the literature. However, very few works have been reported in the literature on the use of magnetostrictive materials, especially for composite structures. Non contact sensing and actuation with high coupling factor, along with other prop- erties such as large bandwidth and less voltage requirement, make magnetostrictive materials increasingly popular as potential candidates for sensors and actuators in structural health monitoring. Constitutive relationships of magnetostrictive material are represented through two equations, one for actuation and other for sensing, both of which are coupled through magneto-mechanical coefficient. In existing finite element formulation, both the equations are decoupled assuming magnetic field as proportional to the applied current. This assumption neglects the stiffness contribution coming from the coupling between mechanical and magnetic domains, which can cause the response to deviate from the time response. In addition, due to different fabrication and curing difficulties, the actual properties of this material such as magneto-mechanical coupling coefficient or elastic modulus, may differ from results measured at laboratory conditions. Hence, identification of the material properties of these embedded sensor and actuator are essential at their in-situ condition. Although, finite element method still remains most versatile, accurate and generally applicable technique for numerical analysis, the method is computationally expensive for wave propagation analysis of large structures. This is because for accurate prediction, the finite element size should be of the order of the wavelength, which is very small due to high frequency loading. Even in health monitoring studies, when the flaw sizes are very small (of the order of few hundred microns), only higher order modes will get affected. This essentially leads to wave propagation problem. The requirement of cost-effective computation of wave propagation brings us to the necessity of spectral finite element method, which is suitable for the study of wave propagation problems. By virtue of its domain transfer formulation, it bypasses the large system size of finite element method. Further, inverse problem such as force identification problem can be performed most conveniently and efficiently, compared to any other existing methods. In addition, spectral element approach helps us to perform force identification directly from the response histories measured in the sensor. The spectral finite element is used widely for both elementary and higher order one or two dimensional waveguides. Higher order waveguides, normally gives a behavior, where a damping mode (evanescent) will start propagating beyond a certain frequency called the cut-off frequency. Hence, when the loading frequencies are much beyond their corresponding cut-off frequencies, higher order mo des start propagating along the structure and should be considered in the analysis of wave propagations. Based on these considerations, three main goals are identified to be pursued in this thesis. The first is to develop the constitutive relationship for magnetostrictive sensor and actuator suitable for structural analysis. The second is the development of different numerical tools for the modelling the damages. The third is the application of these developed elements towards solving inverse problems such as, material property identification, impact force identification, detection and identification of delamination in composite structure. The thesis consists of four parts spread over six chapters. In the first part, linear, nonlinear, coupled and uncoupled constitutive relationships of magnetostrictive materials are studied and the elastic modulus and magnetostrictive constant are evaluated from the experimental results reported in the literature. In uncoupled model, magnetic field for actuator is considered as coil constant times coil current. The coupled model is studied without assuming any explicit direct relationship with magnetic field. In linear coupled model, the elastic modulus, the permeability and magnetostrictive coupling are assumed as constant. In nonlinear-coupled model, the nonlinearity is decoupled and solved separately for the magnetic domain and mechanical domain using two nonlinear curves,’ namely the stress vs. strain curve and magnetic flux density vs. magnetic field curve. This is done by two different methods. In the first, the magnetic flux density is computed iteratively, while in the second, artificial neural network is used, where a trained network gives the necessary strain and magnetic flux density for a given magnetic field and stress level. In the second part, different finite element formulations for composite structures with embedded magnetostrictive patches, which can act both as sensors and actuators, is studied. Both mechanical and magnetic degrees of freedoms are considered in the formulation. One, two and three-dimensional finite element formulations for both coupled and uncoupled analysis is developed. These developed elements are then used to identify the errors in the overall response of the structure due to uncoupled assumption of the magnetostrictive patches and shown that this error is comparable with the sensitivity of the response due to different damage scenarios. These studies clearly bring out the requirement of coupled analysis for structural health monitoring when magnetostrictive sensor and actuator are used. For the specific cases of beam elements, super convergent finite element formulation for composite beam with embedded magnetostrictive patches is introduced for their specific advantages in having superior convergence and in addition, these elements are free from shear locking. A refined 2-node beam element is derived based on classical and first order shear deformation theory for axial-flexural-shear coupled deformation in asymmetrically stacked laminated composite beams with magnetostrictive patches. The element has an exact shape function matrix, which is derived by exactly solving the static part of the governing equations of motion, where a general ply stacking is considered. This makes the element super convergent for static analysis. The formulated consistent mass matrix, however, is approximate. Since the stiffness is exactly represented, the formulated element predicts natural frequency to greater level of accuracy with smaller discretization compared to other conventional finite elements. Finally, these elements are used for material property identification in conjunction with artificial neural network. In the third part, frequency domain analysis is performed using spectrally formulated beam elements. The formulated elements consider deformation due to both shear and lateral contraction, and numerical experiments are performed to highlight the higher order effects, especially at high frequencies. Spectral element is developed for modelling wave propagation in composite laminate in the presence of magnetostrictive patches. The element, by virtue of its frequency domain formulation, can analyze very large domain with nominal cost of computation and is suitable for studying wave propagation through composite materials. Further more, identification of impact force is performed form the magnetostrictive sensor response histories using these spectral elements. In the last part, different numerical examples for structural health monitoring are directed towards studying the responses due to the presence of the delamination in the structure; and the identification of the delamination from these responses using artificial neural network. Neural network is applied to get structural damage status from the finite element response using its mapping feature, which requires output uniqueness. To overcome the loss of output uniqueness due to the dimension reduction, damage space is divided into different overlapped zones and then different networks are trained for these zones. Committee machine is used to co ordinate among these networks. Next, a five-stage hierarchy of networks is used to consider partitioning of damage space, where different dimension reduction algorithms and different partitioning between training and testing samples are used for better mapping fro the identification procedure. The results of delamination detection for composite laminate show that the method developed in this thesis can be applied to structural damage detection and health monitoring for various industrial structures. This thesis collectively addresses all aspects pertaining to the solution of inverse problem and specially the health monitoring of composite structures using magnetostric tive sensor and actuator. In addition, the thesis discusses the necessity of higher order theory in the high frequency analysis of wavw propagation. The thesis ends with brief summary of the tasks accomplished, significant contribution made to the literature and the future applications where the proposed methods addressed in this thesis can be applied.

In the present thesis a novel numerical approach for the optimization of composite structures fabricated from woven composite materials is developed. The aim is to increase the ultimate strength of the structure while at the same time decreasing its weight. The numerical approach is based on a combination of the numerical algorithm of progressive damage modelling (PDM), along with shape optimization (SO) in an iterative subroutine. PDM, which is comprised of three steps, namely stress analysis, failure analysis and material property degradation, is used to predict the initiation and propagation of failure in the structure. During the phase of SO certain geometrical parameters are varied within limits in order to minimize the stresses that lead the structure to ultimate failure as indicated by PDM results. Finally the resulting geometry is solved with PDM to ensure the enhancement in the ultimate strength and the decrease in ultimate weight. Within the frame of this approach, a new methodology for the numerical modeling and the simulation of mechanical behavior of woven composite materials is proposed. The highly inhomogeneous nature of woven composite materials in the micro-scale is taken under consideration to create accurate representative volume element (RVE) FE models which represent the actual material. Then PDM is used for the simulation of their mechanical response. The calculated properties, in terms of stiffnesses and strengths, are then inserted as inputs in the global FE model of the composite structure. Additionally, the reliability and applicability of a continuum damage model (CDM), in comparison with cohesive zone model (CZM), are assessed in order to use the CDM for the modeling of the adhesive’s mechanical behavior. The mentioned numerical approach is applied in an H-shaped joining element fabricated from two different woven composite materials for the loading case of tension. In the first case NCF composite is used while in the second case the joint is made of 3D fully interlaced weave (FIW) composite. The purpose of the H-shaped element is the joining of two composite plates via the method of adhesive bonding. / Στην παρούσα διατριβή αναπτύχθηκε μια νέα μέθοδος αριθμητικής βελτιστοποίησης δομικών στοιχείων από σύνθετα υλικά με σκοπό την αύξηση της αντοχής τους. Η μέθοδος βασίζεται σε έναν αριθμητικό αλγόριθμο Προοδευτικής Εξέλιξης της Βλάβης (ΠΕΒ) και τη Βελτιστοποίηση Σχήματος (ΒΣ) τα οποία συνδυάζονται σε μια επαναληπτική υπό-ρουτίνα. Στην ΠΕΒ περιλαμβάνονται τα βήματα της ανάλυσης τάσεων, ανάλυσης αστοχίας και υποβάθμιση των ιδιοτήτων των στοιχείων. Η χρησιμότητα της έγκειται στην πρόβλεψη της έναρξης και εξέλιξης της αστοχίας στο δομικό στοιχείο κάτι απαραίτητο για την κατανόηση της μηχανικής συμπεριφοράς. Η ΒΣ έχει ως σκοπό την μεταβολή συγκεκριμένων γεωμετρικών παραμέτρων για να επιτευχθεί ελαχιστοποίηση των κρίσιμών τάσεων που προκύπτουν από τα αποτελέσματα της ΠΕΒ και οδηγούν στην αστοχία του στοιχείου. Παράλληλα, για την μοντελοποίηση και τον υπολογισμό των μηχανικών ιδιοτήτων πρωτότυπων πλεγμένων σύνθετων υλικών προτείνεται καινούργια μια μεθοδολογία η οποία λαμβάνει υπ’ όψιν την υψηλή ανομοιογένεια των υλικών στην μικρό-κλίμακα για να υπολογίσει τις ιδιότητες τους. Η μεθοδολογία εφαρμόστηκε σε ένα νέο συνδετικό στοιχείο σχήματος H κατασκευασμένο από δύο διαφορετικά πλεγμένα σύνθετα υλικά, τα μη πτυχωτά και τα τρισδιάστατα πλεγμένα σύνθετα υλικά, για την περίπτωση του εφελκυσμού. Σκοπός του συνδέσμου είναι η ένωση δύο πλακών από σύνθετα υλικά χρησιμοποιώντας κόλλα. Αρχικά το μοντέλο πεπερασμένων στοιχείων του συνδέσμου δημιουργείται και επιλύεται με την μέθοδο ΠΕΒ. Για την προσομοίωση της μη-γραμμικής συμπεριφοράς της κόλλας αναπτύσσεται ένα δι-γραμμικό μοντέλο. Για την προσομοίωση της πλήρης μηχανικής συμπεριφοράς των μη πτυχωτών και τρισδιάστατα πλεγμένων συνθέτων υλικών, αναπτύσσεται μια διαδικασία η οποία περιλαμβάνει τα βήματα της γεωμετρικής μοντελοποίησης, της κατασκευής του μοντέλου πεπερασμένων στοιχειών και την επίλυση αυτού με την μέθοδο ΠΕΒ. Τα αποτελέσματα, σε όρους διαγραμμάτων τάσεων-παραμορφώσεων, χρησιμοποιούνται ως δεδομένα στο μοντέλο πεπερασμένων στοιχείων του συνδέσμου το οποίο επιλύεται και υπολογίζεται το διάγραμμα δύναμης-μετατόπισης. Στην συνέχεια, λαμβάνει μέρος η γεωμετρική βελτιστοποίηση βασιζόμενη στα αποτελέσματα της επίλυσης της αρχικής γεωμετρίας. Σε αυτό το σημείο επιλέγεται η μεταβλητή προς ελαχιστοποίηση στην διαδικασία της βελτιστοποίησης. Το μέγεθος αυτό ονομάζεται Συνάρτηση Σκοπού (ΣΣ) και ορίζεται ως ο συντελεστή βλάβης που ευθύνεται για την τελική αστοχία του δομικού στοιχείου. Ως ένα επιπλέον κριτήριο για την επιλογή της βέλτιστης γεωμετρίας επιλέγεται η μείωση βάρους δεδομένου ότι πρόκειται για αεροπορική κατασκευή. Η γεωμετρία που ελαχιστοποιεί την συνάρτηση σκοπού και ταυτόχρονα είναι ελαφρύτερη από την αρχική, επιλέγεται ως η τελική γεωμετρία. Τέλος, γίνεται η επιτυχής επικύρωση της βελτιστοποίησης με την σύγκριση των αριθμητικών αποτελεσμάτων μεταξύ της αρχικής και τελικής γεωμετρίας. Η μεθοδολογία της ΠΕΒ εφαρμόζεται στην τελική γεωμετρία και τα διαγράμματα δύναμης μετατόπισης συγκρίνονται για να διαπιστωθεί η αύξηση στο μέγιστο φορτίο που μπορεί να φέρει το συνδετικό στοιχείο πριν την τελική αστοχία.

The amount of total and relative sway of a framed or a composite (frame-shear wall) building is of utmost importance in assessing the seismic resistance of the building. Therefore, the design engineer must calculate the sway profile of the building several times during the design process. However, it is not a simple task to calculate the sway of a three-dimensional structure. Of course, computer programs can do the job, but developing the three-dimensional model becomes necessary, which is obviously tedious and time consuming. An easy to apply analytical method is developed, which enables the determination of sway profiles of framed and composite buildings subject to seismic loading. Various framed and composite three-dimensional buildings subject to lateral seismic loads are solved by SAP2000 and the proposed analytical method. The sway profiles are compared and found to be in very good agreement. In most cases, the amount of error involved is less than 5 %. The analytical method is applied to determine sway magnitudes at any desired elevation of the building, the relative sway between two consecutive floors, the slope at any desired point along the height and the curvature distribution of the building from foundation to roof level. After sway and sway-related properties are known, the requirements of the Turkish Earthquake Code can be evaluated and / or checked. By using the analytical method, the amount of shear walls necessary to satisfy Turkish Earthquake Code requirements are determined. Thus, a vital design question has been answered, which up till present time, could only be met by rough empirical guidelines. A mathematical derivation is presented to satisfy the strength requirement of a three-dimensional composite building subject to seismic loading. Thus, the occurrence of shear failure before moment failure in the building is securely avoided. A design procedure is developed to satisfy the stiffness requirement of composite buildings subject to lateral seismic loading. Some useful tools, such as executable user-friendly programs written by using &ldquo / Borland Delphi&rdquo / , have been developed to make the analysis and design easy for the engineer. A method is also developed to satisfy the ductility requirement of composite buildings subject to lateral seismic loading based on a plastic analysis. The commonly accepted sway ductility of &amp / #956 / &amp / #916 / =5 has been used and successful seismic energy dissipation is thus obtained.

Proposed in this thesis is a methodology to enable yacht designers to develop innovative structural concepts, even when the loads experienced by the yacht are highly uncertain, and has been implemented in sufficient detail to confirm the feasibility of this new approach. The new approach is required because today??s yachts are generally lighter, getting larger and going faster. The question arises as to how far the design envelope can be pushed with the highly uncertain loads experienced by the structure? What are the effects of this uncertainty and what trade-offs in the structural design will best meet the overall design objectives? The new approach provides yacht designers with a means of developing innovative structural solutions that accommodate high levels of uncertainty, but still focus on best meeting design objectives constrained by trade-offs in weight, safety and cost. The designer??s preferences have a large, and not always intuitive, influence on the necessary design trade-offs. This in turn invites research into ways to formally integrate decision algorithms into knowledge-based design systems. A lean and robust design system has been achieved by developing a set of tools which are blanketed by a fuzzy decision algorithm. The underlying tool set includes costing, material optimisation and safety analysis. Central to this is the innovative way in which the system allows non-discrete variables to be utilized along with new subjective measures of structural reliability based on load path algorithms and topological (shape) optimisation. The originality in this work is the development of a knowledge-based framework and methodology that uses a fuzzy decision making tool to navigate through a design space and address trade-offs between high level objectives when faced with limited design detail and uncertainty. In so doing, this work introduces the use of topological optimisation and load path theory to the structural design of yachts as a means of overcoming the historical focus of knowledge-based systems and to ensure that innovative solutions can still evolve. A sensitivity analysis is also presented which can quantify a design??s robustness in a system that focuses on a global approach to the measurement of objectives such as cost, weight and safety. Results from the application of this system show new and innovative structural solutions evolving that take into account the designers preferences regarding cost, weight and safety while accommodating uncertain parameters such as the loading experienced by the hull.

The application of static shape control was investigated in this thesis particularly for a composite plate configuration using piezoelectric actuators. A new electro-mechanically coupled mathematical model was developed for the analysis and is based on a third order displacement field coupled with a layerwise electric potential concept. This formulation, TODL, is then implemented into a finite element program. The mathematical model represents an improvement over existing formulations used to model intelligent structures using piezoelectric materials as actuators and sensors. The reason is TODL does not only account for the electro-mechanical coupling within the adaptive material, it also accounts for the full structural coupling in the entire structure due to the piezoelectric material being attached to the host structure. The other significant improvement of TODL is that it is applicable to structures which are relatively thick whereas existing models are based on thin beam / plate theories. Consequently, transverse shearing effects are automatically accounted for in TODL and unlike first order shear deformation theories, shear correction factors are not required. The second major section of this thesis uses the TODL formulation in static shape control. Shape control is defined here as the determination of shape control parameters, including actuation voltage and actuator orientation configuration, such that the structure that is activated using these parameters will conform as close as possible to the desired shape. Several shape control strategies and consequently algorithms were developed here. Initial investigations in shape control has revealed many interesting issues which have been used in later investigations to improve shape controllability and also led to the development of improved algorithms. For instance, the use of discrete actuator patches has led to greater shape controllability and the use of slopes and curvatures as additional control criteria have resulted in significant reduction in internal stresses. The significance of optimizing actuator orientation and its relation to piezoelectric anisotropy in improving shape controllability has also been presented. Thus the major facets of shape control has been brought together and the algorithms developed here represent a comprehensive strategy to perform static shape control.