<p>Contraception is said to be one of the vital determinants of fertility (Bongaarts, 1978). African nations, especially those in sub-Saharan Africa have a history of high fertility levels and low contraceptive use. However, contraceptive methods have been used one way or another throughout human history, although, due to improvements, these methods have evolved over the years. In Namibia, there tend to be a huge gap between women&rsquo / s knowledge of methods of contraception and usage thereof. For instance as per NDHS survey of 2000, 97 percent of married women knew of a contraceptive method, while 38 percent utilised them. This study aims at investigating knowledge and usage of contraceptives among women in union of reproductive age in an independent Namibia, 10 years after independence between 1992 and 2000. Socio-economic and demographic factors affecting contraceptive usage are examined in this study to determine their significance.</p>

<p>The present study was conceived to examine the trend and factors affecting fertility in Nigeria and Guinea. Fertility has declined by about nineteen percent in Nigeria between 1982 and 1999. In the same period it has declined by five percent in Guinea. The decline is observed in data from censuses and surveys. Studies have reported that fertility transition is in progress in most Sub-Sahara African countries (Bongaarts 2008 / Guttmacher 2008), Nigeria (Feyisetan and Bankole 2002) and Guinea (measuredhs 2007). Studies and surveys done in some regions and among ethnic groups suggest that fertility is declining in Nigeria (Caldwell et al. 1992) and Guinea (measuredhs 2007). However, these studies and surveys are devoid of national representativeness as they are localized in specific regions or selected ethnic groups. Thus, they cannot be used as a national reference. The trend of the total fertility rate (TFR) from the three consecutive Demographic and Health Surveys in Nigeria did not show any meaningful decrease over time. In the same vein, no evidence of fertility decline was observed in Guinea from the Demographic and Health Surveys. The claim that fertility is declining in these two countries which assures the funding organizations that Family Planning programs are successful is beyond the scope of the present study. Based on Demographic and Health Surveys the claim that fertility is decreasing in Nigeria may be misleading, whereas in Guinea fertility has shown stability. This suggests that while the factors affecting fertility may be similar, their impacts differ from country to country.</p>

This study examines the effect of progesterone-only injectable contraceptives, and medroxyprogesterone acetate (Depo-Provera) in particular, on the cells of the uterine cervix. Cervical and vaginal smears were taken before commencement of therapy and at 3 and 6 month intervals thereafter on 79 asymptomatic women attending a family planning clinic. Results of hormonal and cellular measurements before and after therapy were compared. menstrual cycling was also studied. The effect on Methods used were hormonal maturation indices, image analysis measurements and microscopic observation of cellular . features. The latter included anisocytosis, anisokaryosis, karyomegaly , plaque formation, cytoplasmic wrinkling, nuclear grooving, hypertrophy, atrophy, cytoplasmic moulding and density, retarded maturation and nuclear protrusions. Squamous, endocervical and metaplastic cells were examined. Analysis of the results showed that progesterone-only contraceptives produce all of the above to a greater or lesser degree resulting in an increased relative nuclear area which may be confused with intraepithelial neoplasia. This is due to the production of a folate deficiency at target organ level which interferes with cell division and slows the maturation process. This effect enabled further observations to be made leading to the establishment of the origin and content of the nipple-like protrusions which occur in endocervical cells in response to hormonal activity. Physiological effects included amenorrhoea and irregular menstrual cycling. Most women showed evidence of interference with normal cycling to a varying degree. The documented cellular changes were shown to modify the expression of common inflammatory and neoplastic conditions of the uterine cervix. These included trichomoniasis, herpesvirus cervicitis, human papillomavirus infection, folate deficiency, cervical intraepithelial neoplasia and invasive carcinoma as well as multiple pathologies. The potential for diagnostic error was examined. New diagnostic criteria were formulated based on the comparison of cellular features found in the presence of the contraceptive with those found under normal conditions. It is anticipated that these criteria will facilitate the cytological diagnosis of pathological conditions of the uterine cervix in users of depo-medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA), leading to increased accuracy and improved and better directed patient management. / Thesis (M.Med.Sc.)-University of Natal, Durban, 1993.

This thesis studies different aspects of reproductive behaviour on the international, national, and local levels in post-communist countries. The main focus is Ukraine, where fertility rates are very low and the population is in severe decline. The studies contribute new knowledge about the applicability of a family policy typology developed on the basis of Western countries’ experience for post-communist countries, and about the influence of family policies on fertility levels in these countries. Moreover, the studies investigate whether and how macro-level influences impact on individuals’ reproductive behaviour. Four articles are included in the thesis: Family policies in Ukraine and Russia in comparative perspective analyses the institutional set-up of family policies in both countries and compares the findings to 31 other countries. The results show that Ukrainian family policies support a male-breadwinner type of family, while the benefit levels of Russian family policies are low, compelling families to rely on relatives or the childcare market. Family policies and fertility - Examining the link between family policy institutions and fertility rates in 33 countries 1995-2010 comparatively explores whether family policies have an effect on fertility rates across the case-countries. Pooled time-series regression analysis demonstrates that gender-egalitarian family policies are connected to higher fertility rates, but that this effect is smaller at higher rates of female labour force participation. To have or not to have a child? Perceived constraints on childbearing in a lowest-low fertility context investigates the influence of the perception of postmodern values, childcare availability and environmental pollution on individuals’ fertility intentions in a city in Eastern Ukraine. It is shown that women who already have a child perceive environmental pollution as a constraint on their fertility intentions. Prevalence and correlates of the use of contraceptive methods by women in Ukraine in 1999 and 2007 examines changes in the prevalence and the correlates of the use of contraceptive methods. The use of modern contraceptive methods increased during the period and the use of traditional methods decreased, while the overall prevalence did not change. Higher exposure to messages about family planning in the media is correlated with the use of modern contraceptive methods.

Background: The present study was conceived to examine the trend and factors affecting fertility in Nigeria and Guinea. Fertility has declined by about nineteen percent in Nigeria between 1982 and 1999. In the same period it has declined by five percent in Guinea. The decline is observed in data from censuses and surveys. Studies have reported that fertility transition is in progress in most Sub-Sahara African countries (Bongaarts 2008; Guttmacher 2008), Nigeria (Feyisetan and Bankole 2002) and Guinea (measuredhs 2007). Studies and surveys done in some regions and among ethnic groups suggest that fertility is declining in Nigeria (Caldwell et al. 1992) and Guinea (measuredhs 2007). However, these studies and surveys are devoid of national representativeness as they are localized in specific regions or selected ethnic groups. Thus, they cannot be used as a national reference. The trend of the total fertility rate (TFR) from the three consecutive Demographic and Health Surveys in Nigeria did not show any meaningful decrease over time. In the same vein, no evidence of fertility decline was observed in Guinea from the Demographic and Health Surveys. The claim that fertility is declining in these two countries which assures the funding organizations that Family Planning programs are successful is beyond the scope of the present study. Based on Demographic and Health Surveys the claim that fertility is decreasing in Nigeria may be misleading, whereas in Guinea fertility has shown stability. This suggests that while the factors affecting fertility may be similar, their impacts differ from country to country.Method: Data from the Demographic Health Surveys (DHS) conducted in Nigeria and in Guinea were used in the study. Trends in TFR by background were extracted from the censuses and DHS final reports in Nigeria and Guinea. Data from DHS 1999 and DHS 2003 in Nigeria and DHS 1999 and DHS 2005 in Guinea were used for the actual analysis. The sample sizes of 8199 and 7620 of DHS 1999 and 2003 respectively for all women aged 15 - 49 were included in Nigeria. The sample sizes for Guinea were 6753 and 7954 for DHS 1999 and 2005 respectively. The trends in knowledge and current contraceptive use, unmet needs,desires for last child, current pregnancy, visiting of health facility, visitation by family planning workers and respondent approval of Family Planning (FP) were examined by age groups. Univariate and bivariate analyses were executed to explain the association and determinants of contraceptive use by socio-demographic characteristics. Stepwise multinomial regression was carried out to determine the variables affecting total number of children ever born (TCB).Result: Total fertility rate has increased in Nigeria between 1990 and 2003 by background characteristics. It has increased by eleven and fourteen percent in rural and urban residence respectively in Nigeria within the same interval. Fertility increased by thirteen and seventeen percent among women with primary and higher education respectively in Nigeria. Unmet needs for child spacing decreased by three percent. Over seventy percent of women have never discussed FP with their partners and other people. Over sixty percent of Women neither visited a health facility (HF) nor were visited by a health worker in 2003. Forty-eight percent of the women approved of FP in 2003, which represents an increase of five percent of 1999.Over ninety percent wanted their last child and current pregnancy in 2003. However, there are incidences of mistimed and unwanted births and pregnancies. There was an association between contraceptive use and all the socio-demographic variables examined. The age of the respondent, current use of contraceptive, age at first sexual intercourse and partner’s education have positive effects on fertility. However, education of women, place of residence and age at marriage has a negative effect on fertility.Total fertility rate has remained stable in Guinea. It increased by eight percent in rural areass and decreased by fifteen percent in urban areass between 1992 and 2005. In Guinea, fertility decreased by over twenty percent for women with primary and secondary education between 1992 and 2005. Unmet needs for child spacing and limiting declined by three and one percent. Over eighty percent of women have not discussed FP with their partners and other people. Women that did not visit a HF remained stable at sixty-six percent, while ninety-two percent were not visited in their homes by a FP worker. The women who approved of FP were forty-seven percent, showing a decline by eleven percent from 1999. Over eighty percent of the women wanted their last child and current pregnancies in 2005. There was an association between contraceptive use and all the socio-demographic variables examined.The significance of the regression coefficient shows that the age of the respondent and current use of contraception has a positive effect on TCB. Education, place of residence, age at marriage and religion have negative effects on TCB.Conclusion: The general patterns observed do not give confidence that fertility is declining or showing a tendency towards declining in Nigeria. In addition the use of modern contraceptive has no bright future as a vehicle to regulate fertility in Nigeria. Fertility in Guinea shows some potential for reduction which may be transitory because some of the indicators that favour fertility reduction seem to be losing their grip. There are overall negative attitudes to contraceptive use and FP in Guinea. This is similar to the observed situation in Nigeria. Expectation that intensified campaigns on contraceptive use and FP will reduce fertility and ultimately reduce population growth in Nigeria and Guinea is not likely to be met, because the desire for large families abound. / Magister Scientiae - MSc

Denna uppsats beskriver eventuell problematik kring tonårsgraviditeter. I Sverige finns det cirka 200 ungdomsmottagningar, och den första öppnades 1970. I Sverige visar statistiken från 1970-2012 att tonårsgraviditeter har minskat men abortstatistiken har däremot. Syftet med studien är att beskriva eventuell problematik kring tonårsgraviditeter ␣ utifrån personalens perspektiv och erfarenheter på en ungdomsmottagning. Studien var kvalitativ och sju individer intervjuades, varav fem stycken var barnmorskor och två av dem kuratorer. Materialet analyserades sedan med inspiration från en kvalitativ innehållsanalys till tre kategorier, vilka är ␣ det inkonsekventa användandet av preventivmedel, problematiken kring ambivalens och relationen till partnern. Det inkonsekventa användandet av preventivmedel grundar sig i okunskap och nonchalans bland tonårsflickor. Ambivalensen uppstår i valet av att behålla graviditeten eller inte, och sista kategorin, relationen till partnern grundar sig i betydelsen av stöd och delaktighet i valet av att behålla eller avbryta graviditeten. Vår konklusion är att det förebyggande arbetet av tonårsgraviditeter måste öka och ungdomsmottagningar kan starta grupper där tonåringarna får träffa andra tonåringar i samma situation, och diskutera graviditeter. För att det förebyggande arbetet ska bli framgångsrikt, måste vi ha ett helhetsperspektiv gentemot tonårsflickorna och behandla varje individ som ett enskilt fall.

Thesis (M.Sc.(Tech.))--University of Waikato, 2006. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 221-230) Also available via the World Wide Web.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Washington, 1994. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves [57]-62).

Thesis (M.A. (Population and Reproductive Health Research))--Mahidol University, 1999.

Thesis (M.S.)--University of Michigan, 1991.