The author begins this article focusing on how historically the contract has reached such binding; from its philosophical origins, through his word to a matter of loyalty to Christian morality; to attribute the quality of certainty as contribution to the economy and become an indispensable legal instrument of forecasting for relations between individuals. Finally, in the second part of this article, essential applications mainly include contract between both parties and to third parties, also seeking the role of judge. / El autor inicia el presente artículo centrándose en cómo históricamente el contrato ha alcanzado dicha fuerza obligatoria; desde sus orígenes filosóficos, pasando por la palabra empeñada a una cuestión de fidelidad en la moral cristiana; hasta atribuirle la calidad de certeza como aporte en la economía y convertirse en un instrumento jurídico indispensable de previsión para las relaciones entre los particulares. Finalmente, en la segunda parte de este artículo, destacan principalmente las aplicaciones esenciales del contrato tanto entre las partes como frente a terceros, tratando también el rol del juez.

Information duty in pre-contractual negotiations Act no. 89/2012 Sb., the Civil Code, has brought many changes into the private law. The new Civil Code within the frame of pre-contractual liability among other things explicitly embedded in the provision of Section 1728 Subsection 2 the so called general information duty, i. e. a duty of the contracting parties to notify each other of certain circumstances prior to the conclusion of the contract. The paper aspires to define the term and the scope of general information duty with the help of the comparison of approaches toward this duty in other states and with the help of existing judicial (both Czech and foreign) decision making. In certain aspects, documents of European Contract Law were also taken into account owing to the fact that the European Contract Law was used in the process of drafting the valid and effective Civil Code. Even though many sources were used while writing the paper, the scope of general information duty could not be definitely determined. With respect to the fact that no explicit and distinct limits of this duty are set, the main source of knowledge will be judicial decision making which should take a consistent attitude toward a complex issue of general information duty which is inseparably related to the Economic Analysis of Law....

In this article, the author explains the forms, consequences, and exceptions of breach of a contract from the perspective of comparative law. Thus, he aims to understand legal situations, which seek to protect the right of credit, such as the repair of the damages. The author makes distinctions when defining whether the security obligation is part of the contract or not, which allows to distinguish the nature of objectivity or subjective contractual liability. / En el presente artículo, el autor explica las formas, consecuencias y excepciones del incumplimiento de un contrato desde el derecho comparado. Así, pretende comprender las situaciones jurídicas, las cuales buscan tutelar el derecho de crédito, como el hecho de reparar el daño.El autor hace distinciones al momento de definir si la obligación de seguridad forma parte o no del contrato, permitiendo distinguir la naturaleza objetiva o subjetiva de la responsabilidad contractual.

Les sanctions de l’inexécution des contrats administratifs constituent un thème classique mais peu traité du droit administratif. Elles méritaient une étude globale renouvelée. Les principales sanctions applicables en cas d’inexécution ou d’exécution fautive de ces contrats existent en effet au moins depuis la première moitié du XXème siècle. Les présentations théoriques qui en sont faites remontent également à cette période et ont peu changé, même si certaines évolutions importantes du droit positif sont intervenues. Cette stabilité de la discipline cache pourtant une réelle complexité qui se décèle dès l’analyse de la notion-même de « sanction contractuelle ». En effet, les mesures auxquelles cette notion renvoie connaissent une pluralité d’objets (résiliation, exécution autoritaire des obligations, dommages-intérêts, pénalités…) et de fonctions (prévenir, réparer, punir…) bien distincts, les uns des autres. En cherchant a priori à éviter l’inexécution et a posteriori, à la surmonter, les sanctions contractuelles apparaissent à la fois comme des mesures préventives qui peuvent s’apparenter à de véritables mesures de police du service public et à des punitions intervenant dans un cadre répressif et disciplinaire particulier, caractéristique d’un ordre contractuel autonome. La complexité et le particularisme du droit des sanctions contractuelles résulte aussi de l’aspérité de leurs régimes auxquels le droit positif et la doctrine peinent à trouver une cohérence globale. Construits isolément, ces régimes ne résultent en effet d’aucune logique commune et unitaire. Pour autant, un certain nombre de règles applicables à toutes les sanctions peut être repéré, en même temps qu’une tendance progressive à l’harmonisation. A ce jour, la substance qui constitue le droit des sanctions contractuelles apparait ainsi suffisamment homogène pour permettre la consécration d’une catégorie juridique de nature à aboutir à l’application d’un régime cohérent. Au-delà des aspects théoriques de la question, une telle consécration pourrait s’accompagner de certaines évolutions de droit positif dont l’ensemble serait de nature à offrir une lisibilité de la matière et à accroitre la sécurité juridique qui paraissent aujourd’hui indispensables à la pratique et aux acteurs des contrats administratifs. / The sanctions of non-performance of administrative contracts are a classic but little-discussed theme of administrative law. They deserved a renewed global study. The main penalties applicable in the event of non-fulfillment or faulty execution of these contracts exist at least since the first half of the twentieth century. The theoretical presentations made there also date back to that period and have changed little, although some important developments in positive law have taken place. However, this stability of discipline hides a real complexity which can be discerned from the analysis of the notion of "contractual sanction". Indeed, the measures to which this notion refers are subject to a multiplicity of objects (termination, authoritarian execution of obligations, damages, penalties ...) and functions (prevention, repair, punishment ...) distinct from one another. By trying a priori to avoid non-performance and a posteriori, to overcome it, contractual sanctions appear both as preventive measures which may amount to genuine public service police measures and punishments in a framework repression and discipline, characteristic of an autonomous contractual order. The complexity and particularity of the contractual sanctions law also results from the asperity of their juridical regimes to which the positive law and the doctrine struggle to find a global coherence. Constructed in isolation, these regimes don’t result from any common and unitary logic. However, a number of rules applicable to all sanctions can be identified, along with a gradual trend towards harmonization. The substance which constitutes the contractual penalties law thus appears to be sufficiently homogeneous to enable the recognition of a legal category able to leading the application of a coherent regime. Beyond the theoretical aspects of the question, such a consecration could be accompanied by certain evolutions of positive law, the whole of which would be such as to offer a readability of the matter and to increase the legal certainty which now seem indispensable to the practice and the actors of the administrative contracts.

CNS participó de la concepción del estudio y recolectó los datos. SAG, RECP y KCJ hicieron la revisión crítica. CNS y TCJ realizaron el análisis e interpretación de los datos. CNS redactó el borrador del artículo. Todos los autores aprobaron la versión final del artículo. / Objetivos. Determinar las características de las denuncias penales por responsabilidad profesional médica, a partir de los informes periciales emitidos en la División Clínico Forense de Lima, Perú. Materiales y métodos. Se realizó un estudio transversal donde se incluyeron todos los informes periciales emitidos del 2005 al 2010, en la División Clínico Forense de Lima, Perú. Se realizó el análisis descriptivo de cada una de las variables. Resultados. El 60,3% (495/821) de las denuncias penales por responsabilidad profesional médica fueron valoradas como acuerdo a la lex artis; el 16,8% (138/821) no acuerdo a la lex artis; en 13% (107/821) de los casos no se pudo emitir conclusiones, y en 9,9% (81/821) las conclusiones del informe pericial no incluyen una valoración del acto médico. Los casos donde la lesión se atribuyó al propio proceso de la enfermedad correspondieron al 80,9% (502/620), y los que se consideraron resultado de la asistencia sanitaria al 19,0% (118/620). La distribución de la causa de la lesión según el cumplimiento de la lex artis mostró diferencias significativas. Conclusiones. En nuestro país, las denuncias por presunta responsabilidad médica se encuentran en aumento, predominantemente en las especialidades quirúrgicas, donde la probabilidad de ser considerado como un acto médico no adecuado a la lex artis es mayor. Asimismo en un porcentaje importante de casos no se llegan a emitir conclusiones valorativas sobre el acto médico. / Objectives.To determine the characteristics of the criminal complaints claining medical professional liability, based on the expert reports issued by the Forensic Examination Division of Lima, Peru. Materials and methods. A cross-sectional study was carried out, which included all the expert reports issued between 2005 and 2010 at the Forensic Examination Division of Lima, Peru. A descriptive analysis of each of the variables was performed. Results. 60.3% (495/821) of the criminal complaints for medical professional liability were valued as being in accordance with the lex artis while16.8% (138/821) were not in accordance with the lex artis. In 13% (107/821) of the cases, conclusions could not be drawn;in 9.9% (81/821) of the cases, the conclusions in the expert report did not include an valuations of the medical act.The cases in which the injury was attributed to the process of the disease itself accounted for 80.9% (502/620), and those in which in the injury was considered a result of the health care received were 19.0% (118/620). The distribution of the cause of the injury based on accordance with the lex artis showed significant differences. Conclusions. In our country, the number of claims for claimed medical liability is increasing, predominantly in relation to surgical specialties, where a medical act is more likely to be considered not in accordance with the lex artis. In addition, in a significant percentage of cases, no conclusions are drawn about the medical act.

This thesis' main focus lies in the analysis of the new statutory provisions pertaining to the civil liability for damage and identifying the differences between the old Civil Code (Act No. 40/964 Coll.) and the newly enacted Civil Code (Act No. 89/2012 Coll.), which brought about major changes with respect to the traditional regulation of liability for damage, which dated back to the enactment of Austrian ABGB in 1811. In this thesis I will try to analyse these changes and critically assess their impact and improvements over the old regulation and bring forward the controversial points and drawbacks of the new Civil Code. In the first and mostly theoretical part of the thesis I will focus mainly on the analysis of the new concept of civil liability which differs from the major view of the civil theory. I will also focus on the change of terminology resulting from these conceptual changes. The second part of this thesis will be less abstract and focus more on the new differentiation between the contractual liability for damage, i. e. liability arising out of the breach of a contract, and the delictual liability for damage, which arises out of the acts violating the statutory provisions (the written law). This thesis consists of three main sections, which are further divided into subsections. The...

A cláusula de limitação de responsabilidade é a estipulação pela qual as partes de um contrato decidem estabelecer um limite ao efeito indenizatório da responsabilidade, seja por meio da escolhe de um valor máximo, seja por meio da alteração das regras supletivas do regime legal. No Brasil, essa cláusula não possui previsão legal específica, porém, em razão de sua frequência na prática, faz-se necessário o estabelecimento de critérios para a determinação da extensão e dos limites que devem ser observados para que sejam válidas e produzam os efeitos buscados pelos contraentes. Este trabalho exclui da análise os contratos de adesão e os contratos firmados no âmbito das relações de consumo. Também, não se analisa a cláusula de afastamento integral da responsabilidade (a chamada cláusula de exoneração da responsabilidade). A fim de determinar tais critérios, partiu-se dos limites impostos à autonomia privada em geral – ordem pública e normas cogentes – e dos critérios citados pela doutrina e pela jurisprudência, específicos à cláusula limitativa, quais sejam, o dolo, a culpa grave e o inadimplemento da obrigação principal. Assim, com o objetivo de tornar cada mais clara a incidência de cada uma dessas balizas e, em especial, afastando-se a invalidade/ineficácia automática da cláusula em casos de inadimplemento da obrigação principal, buscou-se delinear como a cláusula interage com a regulação contratual de interesses e com a apuração do montante indenizatório, por meio da análise da composição da indenização. / The limitation of liability clause is the stipulation by which the parties to a contract decide to establish a limit to the indemnifying effect of liability, either by choosing a maximum amount or by changing the rules of the legal regime. In Brazil, this clause does not have specific legal provisions, but because of its frequency in practice, it is necessary to establish the criteria for determining the extent and limits that should be observed for it to be valid and produce the effects sought by the parties. This study excludes from the analysis the adhesion contracts and the contracts signed in the scope of consumer relationships. Neither the exclusion of liability clause is analyzed. In order to determine such criteria, this dissertation starts from the limits imposed on party autonomy in general – public order and cogent norms - and proceeds to the criteria mentioned by doctrine and case law, specific to the limitation clause, namely, willful misconduct and the default of the fundamental term. Thus, to clarify the incidence of each of these limits and, in particular, to remove the automatic invalidity/ineffectiveness of the clause in cases of default of the fundamental term of a contract, this work delineates how the clause interacts with the contractual regulation of interests and with the determination of the indemnity amount, through the analysis of the composition of the indemnification.

O presente trabalho examina a teoria da quebra eficiente do contrato, oriunda do direito anglo-saxão, segundo a qual, sinteticamente, um contrato só será cumprido se os custos para adimplir a obrigação forem inferiores àqueles incorridos pelo descumprimento, admitindo-se, portanto, o inadimplemento voluntário dos contratos. O objetivo é, além de apresentar a teoria, verificar a possibilidade de aplicação da mesma no Brasil, com enfoque especial nos contratos empresariais. Para tanto, o trabalho é estruturado em introdução, quatro capítulos de desenvolvimento e encerra com a conclusão. Superada a introdução, que apresenta mais profundamente as razões que levaram à pesquisa sobre o tema, o capítulo 2 versa acerca dos paradigmas clássicos de responsabilidade contratual, com destaque às modalidades de extinção do contrato sem a consecução do seu objeto bem como às regras indenizatórias aplicáveis nestes casos, em que se busca cotejá-las com o entendimento jurisprudencial. A seguir, o capítulo 3 traz as premissas teóricas da Law and Economics focadas no Direito dos Contratos necessárias à compreensão, no capítulo seguinte, da teoria da quebra eficiente do contrato, que representa o tema central do presente estudo. Neste capítulo 4 será feita uma abordagem teórica e prática da teoria sob exame, apontando sua origem histórica, desenvolvimento e aceitação do paradigma, identificando os requisitos para sua aplicação, potenciais barreiras e também as críticas doutrinárias para, em seguida, delinear o que seria o cenário ideal para sua aplicação, bem como um tópico dedicado exclusivamente à sua abordagem prática e metodologia, indicando os elementos que devem ser sopesados antes de se tomar a decisão de romper um contrato. No capítulo 5, verifica-se quais requisitos são aceitos, as efetivas barreiras e como elas podem ser superadas para autorizar a sua incidência no Brasil, tanto os de caráter jurídico como os extralegais. Para o fechamento, o último capítulo apresenta as conclusões alcançadas através da pesquisa, indicando pontos relevantes sobre a teoria da quebra eficiente e respondendo ao principal questionamento cuja resposta era almejada, se é possível aplicar a teoria no Brasil, sob quais circunstâncias e em qual extensão. / The current paper examines the efficient breach theory of contracts, from the Anglo-Saxon law origin, according to which, briefly, a contract will only be performed if the costs for performance of the obligation are lower than those incurred for non-performance, admitting, therefore, intentional breach of contract. The goal is, in addition to presenting the theory, check the possibility of applying it in Brazil, focusing mostly on business contracts. Therefore, the work is structured into introduction, four chapters of development and ends with the conclusion. Surpassed the introduction, which explains more deeply the reasons that led to research on the topic, chapter 2 examines the classical paradigms of contractual liability, especially to terminate the contract without achieving its object as well as the applicable indemnity rules in these cases, seeking to compare them with the jurisprudential understanding. Following, chapter 3 provides the theoretical premises of Law and Economics focused on the Law of Contracts necessary to understand, in the next chapter, the efficient breach theory, which is the central theme of this study. In chapter 4 a theoretical and practical approach of the theory under examination will be addressed with its historical origin, development and acceptance of the paradigm, identifying the requirements for its application, potential barriers and also the criticism it has faced to, then, outline what would be the ideal scenario for its application as well as a topic dedicated exclusively to its practical approach and methodology, pointing the elements that should be weighed before deciding to breach a contract. In chapter 5, it is shown the which requirements are accepted, the actual barriers and how they can be surpassed to permit its incidence in Brazil, both legal and non-legal. For closure, the last chapter presents the conclusions reached through the research, indicating the relevant points on the theory of efficient breach and responding to the main question of which answer was longed for, whether it is possible to apply the theory in Brazil, under what circumstances and to what extent.

As every breach of a contract not only conditions destabilization of business relations, but also causes a social conflict, and an aggrieved party must be compensated for damage incurred in connection with non-performance or defective performance of obligations under the contract. A breach of a private interest as a result of non-performance or defective performance of a contract gives grounds for contractual civil liability to arise. As the compensatory function is the main function of civil liability, only proper implementation of it can guarantee protection of the breached interests of the parties and restore the stability of business relations. Thus, in order to restore the balance of legal relations, it is necessary to have a good knowledge of the legal regulation of damages in contractual relations. This research work gives a comprehensive analysis of legal regulation of damages in contractual relations in the Republic of Lithuania, as well as peculiarities and problems of regulation of this institution. Contractual liability is researched as one of the forms of civil liability, different from tortious liability; it is also discussed which of these two forms of civil liability should be applied in different stages of pre-contractual relations. The essence of damages as one of the forms of contractual liability is disclosed by studying the types of damage that are compensated for in case of breach of a contract, differences between damages and penalties, conditions for... [to full text]

O presente trabalho examina a teoria da quebra eficiente do contrato, oriunda do direito anglo-saxão, segundo a qual, sinteticamente, um contrato só será cumprido se os custos para adimplir a obrigação forem inferiores àqueles incorridos pelo descumprimento, admitindo-se, portanto, o inadimplemento voluntário dos contratos. O objetivo é, além de apresentar a teoria, verificar a possibilidade de aplicação da mesma no Brasil, com enfoque especial nos contratos empresariais. Para tanto, o trabalho é estruturado em introdução, quatro capítulos de desenvolvimento e encerra com a conclusão. Superada a introdução, que apresenta mais profundamente as razões que levaram à pesquisa sobre o tema, o capítulo 2 versa acerca dos paradigmas clássicos de responsabilidade contratual, com destaque às modalidades de extinção do contrato sem a consecução do seu objeto bem como às regras indenizatórias aplicáveis nestes casos, em que se busca cotejá-las com o entendimento jurisprudencial. A seguir, o capítulo 3 traz as premissas teóricas da Law and Economics focadas no Direito dos Contratos necessárias à compreensão, no capítulo seguinte, da teoria da quebra eficiente do contrato, que representa o tema central do presente estudo. Neste capítulo 4 será feita uma abordagem teórica e prática da teoria sob exame, apontando sua origem histórica, desenvolvimento e aceitação do paradigma, identificando os requisitos para sua aplicação, potenciais barreiras e também as críticas doutrinárias para, em seguida, delinear o que seria o cenário ideal para sua aplicação, bem como um tópico dedicado exclusivamente à sua abordagem prática e metodologia, indicando os elementos que devem ser sopesados antes de se tomar a decisão de romper um contrato. No capítulo 5, verifica-se quais requisitos são aceitos, as efetivas barreiras e como elas podem ser superadas para autorizar a sua incidência no Brasil, tanto os de caráter jurídico como os extralegais. Para o fechamento, o último capítulo apresenta as conclusões alcançadas através da pesquisa, indicando pontos relevantes sobre a teoria da quebra eficiente e respondendo ao principal questionamento cuja resposta era almejada, se é possível aplicar a teoria no Brasil, sob quais circunstâncias e em qual extensão. / The current paper examines the efficient breach theory of contracts, from the Anglo-Saxon law origin, according to which, briefly, a contract will only be performed if the costs for performance of the obligation are lower than those incurred for non-performance, admitting, therefore, intentional breach of contract. The goal is, in addition to presenting the theory, check the possibility of applying it in Brazil, focusing mostly on business contracts. Therefore, the work is structured into introduction, four chapters of development and ends with the conclusion. Surpassed the introduction, which explains more deeply the reasons that led to research on the topic, chapter 2 examines the classical paradigms of contractual liability, especially to terminate the contract without achieving its object as well as the applicable indemnity rules in these cases, seeking to compare them with the jurisprudential understanding. Following, chapter 3 provides the theoretical premises of Law and Economics focused on the Law of Contracts necessary to understand, in the next chapter, the efficient breach theory, which is the central theme of this study. In chapter 4 a theoretical and practical approach of the theory under examination will be addressed with its historical origin, development and acceptance of the paradigm, identifying the requirements for its application, potential barriers and also the criticism it has faced to, then, outline what would be the ideal scenario for its application as well as a topic dedicated exclusively to its practical approach and methodology, pointing the elements that should be weighed before deciding to breach a contract. In chapter 5, it is shown the which requirements are accepted, the actual barriers and how they can be surpassed to permit its incidence in Brazil, both legal and non-legal. For closure, the last chapter presents the conclusions reached through the research, indicating the relevant points on the theory of efficient breach and responding to the main question of which answer was longed for, whether it is possible to apply the theory in Brazil, under what circumstances and to what extent.