Duty to prevent damage and its effects in particular legal branches Abstract: The purpose of my thesis is to analyse the duty to prevent damage in the context czech of legal system, to prove that prevention is integral to the system of civil liability and examine special consequences of this duty outside the scope of civil law, i.e. in criminal and administrative law. The reason for my research is increasing importance of revention in modern legal discourse. The thesis is composed of six chapters, each of them dealing with different aspects of the principle of prevention and its development. Chapter One is introductory, analyses and defines the phenomenon of prevention in the civil law. The chapter is subdivided into four parts. Part one briefly describes the emphasis on the prevention in civil liability by the law and economics. Part two analyses the principle of neminem laedere and its importance within the principle of prevention. Part three draws conclusions from the preceeding parts and defines the duty to prevent damage in the civil law. Part four then describes who might be the subject of such a duty. Chapter Two examines the development of the principle of prevention within the czech legal system and examples of relevant case law. It is subdivided into four parts, examining succesive civil codes...

Should Eskom and municipalities be held liable for loss resulting from load shedding? In essence, this is the question this dissertation answers or at least sheds some light on. This dissertation looks at the possibility of holding Eskom and municipalities delictually or contractually liable for loss resulting from load shedding. It does this by first discussing the delictual elements and thereafter determining whether these elements are present in the current circumstances in which Eskom and municipalities find themselves. It also looks at the relevant forms of breach of contract which may be present under the circumstances. It discusses their applicability to Eskom’s Standard Conditions of Supply for Small Supplies with Conventional Metering. It also discusses the applicability of these forms of breach to the relevant electricity supply by-laws which, in essence, provide the terms and conditions relating to the agreement for the supply of electricity between municipalities and consumers. The nature of electricity supply contracts are discussed throughout the dissertation in brief. It is found that electricity in itself is a very unique thing where the supply and sale thereof cannot be separated. The dissertation also deals with some interesting legislation which has the effect of municipalities and Eskom having to prove that they were not negligent in causing loss to consumers. Furthermore, the dissertation looks at related topics, briefly discussing class actions, pure economic loss, the “once and for all” rule, mitigation of loss, prescription, concurrent actions and possible infringement of constitutional rights. It considers the types of loss which might be claimed for as well as alternatives to instituting claims for damages. In the end, the conclusion is reached that all claims must be assessed with due regard to the circumstances surrounding each claim. It also comes to the conclusion that, in general, Eskom can be held delictually and contractually liable for load shedding. The assessed contract contains provisions which are contrary to national legislation and thus inoperative. It is, however, doubtful if such liability would succeed since courts would in all probability deny such claims for fear of opening the flood gates. It might be harder and even impossible to hold municipalities delictually liable. However, municipalities might be contractually liable as it is clear that by-laws, which regulate the supply of electricity to the consumer by the municipality, are often inoperative since these are in conflict with national legislation. This dissertation does not proclaim to provide all the answers relating to claims resulting from load shedding. It is, however, hoped that it will provide some insight into the considerations that need to be taken into account whilst raising some thought provoking questions. / Dissertation (LLM)--University of Pretoria, 2011. / Private Law / unrestricted

O presente estudo aborda o acidente do trabalho e sua reparação pelo direito comum em face dos dois principais sistemas que fundamentam a responsabilização civil do empregador por acidentes do trabalho - subjetivo e objetivo -, principalmente após a entrada em vigor do novel Código Civil brasileiro, o qual, a despeito de ter mantido como regra geral, no caput do seu artigo 927, a responsabilidade subjetiva, estabeleceu, no parágrafo único desse mesmo dispositivo, concomitantemente, regime especial de responsabilidade objetiva nas hipóteses especificadas em lei ou na hipótese de a atividade normalmente desenvolvida pelo autor do dano implicar, por sua natureza, risco para os direitos de outrem. Se há a compreensão imediata da primeira parte do parágrafo único do artigo em comento, na segunda, as hipóteses de risco são dadas sob a forma de cláusula geral, cabendo ao intérprete a tarefa de preencher a lacuna legal. Essa é uma tarefa que deve ser executada à luz da Constituição Federal brasileira, que prevê, em seu artigo 7º, inciso XXVIII, a responsabilidade do empregador por culpa ou dolo. Assim, na questão acidente do trabalho, a presente tese demonstra que a teoria do risco tem avançado cada vez mais sobre o terreno da responsabilidade subjetiva, sem, contudo, ter transformado a responsabilidade objetiva em regra geral incidente a partir de simples avaliação circunstancial de um dano verificado na relação de trabalho. Concluiu-se que as atividades que justifiquem a aplicação de uma responsabilidade especial dependem, na análise do caso concreto, antes da apreciação do mérito, de uma decisão judicial de natureza declaratória nesse sentido, representando valioso instrumento para a reparação dos danos ocorridos em atividades de risco não capituladas em lei. / The present study is concerned with labor-related accidents and their reparations through the normal course of law, taking into consideration the two main systems on which the employers civil liability is based - subjective and objective -, especially after the new Brazilian Civil Code came into force, which, in spite of the general rule of subjective liability being upheld in the caput of article 937, established in the single paragraph of this same article a special regimen of objective liability on the basis of hypotheses specified in law or on the hypothesis that the activity normally undertaken by the author of damages incurred implies by its very nature in risk to the rights of others. If the first part of the single paragraph of the article under discussion may be immediately comprehended, in the second part, the hypotheses are presented as a general rule, thus leaving the task of filling this legal interpretation gap in the hands of the person making the interpretation. This is a task which should be undertaken in the light of the Brazilian Federal Constitution, which, in article 7th subparagraph XXVIII, recognizes the liability of the employer by blame or intention. Thus with regard to labor-related accidents, the present thesis demonstrates that the theory of risk has increasingly advanced into the territory of subjective liability, without however turning objective liability into a general prevailing rule when undertaking circumstantial assessment of damages incurred as a result of work. It is concluded that activities which justify the application of special liability depend, where a concrete case is analyzed and before final judgment is passed, on a judicial declaration for this, and this represents a valuable instrument for reparation of damages incurred in activities of risk not covered by the law.

O presente estudo aborda o acidente do trabalho e sua reparação pelo direito comum em face dos dois principais sistemas que fundamentam a responsabilização civil do empregador por acidentes do trabalho - subjetivo e objetivo -, principalmente após a entrada em vigor do novel Código Civil brasileiro, o qual, a despeito de ter mantido como regra geral, no caput do seu artigo 927, a responsabilidade subjetiva, estabeleceu, no parágrafo único desse mesmo dispositivo, concomitantemente, regime especial de responsabilidade objetiva nas hipóteses especificadas em lei ou na hipótese de a atividade normalmente desenvolvida pelo autor do dano implicar, por sua natureza, risco para os direitos de outrem. Se há a compreensão imediata da primeira parte do parágrafo único do artigo em comento, na segunda, as hipóteses de risco são dadas sob a forma de cláusula geral, cabendo ao intérprete a tarefa de preencher a lacuna legal. Essa é uma tarefa que deve ser executada à luz da Constituição Federal brasileira, que prevê, em seu artigo 7º, inciso XXVIII, a responsabilidade do empregador por culpa ou dolo. Assim, na questão acidente do trabalho, a presente tese demonstra que a teoria do risco tem avançado cada vez mais sobre o terreno da responsabilidade subjetiva, sem, contudo, ter transformado a responsabilidade objetiva em regra geral incidente a partir de simples avaliação circunstancial de um dano verificado na relação de trabalho. Concluiu-se que as atividades que justifiquem a aplicação de uma responsabilidade especial dependem, na análise do caso concreto, antes da apreciação do mérito, de uma decisão judicial de natureza declaratória nesse sentido, representando valioso instrumento para a reparação dos danos ocorridos em atividades de risco não capituladas em lei. / The present study is concerned with labor-related accidents and their reparations through the normal course of law, taking into consideration the two main systems on which the employers civil liability is based - subjective and objective -, especially after the new Brazilian Civil Code came into force, which, in spite of the general rule of subjective liability being upheld in the caput of article 937, established in the single paragraph of this same article a special regimen of objective liability on the basis of hypotheses specified in law or on the hypothesis that the activity normally undertaken by the author of damages incurred implies by its very nature in risk to the rights of others. If the first part of the single paragraph of the article under discussion may be immediately comprehended, in the second part, the hypotheses are presented as a general rule, thus leaving the task of filling this legal interpretation gap in the hands of the person making the interpretation. This is a task which should be undertaken in the light of the Brazilian Federal Constitution, which, in article 7th subparagraph XXVIII, recognizes the liability of the employer by blame or intention. Thus with regard to labor-related accidents, the present thesis demonstrates that the theory of risk has increasingly advanced into the territory of subjective liability, without however turning objective liability into a general prevailing rule when undertaking circumstantial assessment of damages incurred as a result of work. It is concluded that activities which justify the application of special liability depend, where a concrete case is analyzed and before final judgment is passed, on a judicial declaration for this, and this represents a valuable instrument for reparation of damages incurred in activities of risk not covered by the law.

A presente dissertação tem como objetivo a análise da responsabilidade civil pré-contratual no âmbito do Direito do Trabalho. Para tanto, inicialmente buscamos a conceituação dos institutos necessários para a construção do conteúdo estudado. Após, trouxemos os conceitos e princípios que norteiam os contratos civis para as relações de trabalho. Ainda que o Direito do Trabalho seja norteado por princípios específicos, os princípios de Direito Civil foram utilizados e transpostos de forma mitigada para o Direito Laboral. Tratamos de realizar a diferenciação entre o pré-contrato e as negociações preliminares, uma vez que esse estudo é fundamental para que se identifique o momento em que o pré-contrato de trabalho tem início, a fim de se estabelecerem parâmetros e limites para a apuração de responsabilidade civil. Sedimentados os conceitos basilares sobre pré-contrato e responsabilidade civil, tratamos dos efeitos desta última no momento em que se celebra o pré-contrato de trabalho. Importante, também, a análise das situações que permeiam a celebração do pré-contrato do trabalho, tais quais as entrevistas e testes seletivos, anúncios de emprego e suas consequências para a formação do contrato de trabalho. Analisamos a responsabilidade civil que pode ser atribuída não só ao contratante, de forma direta, mas, também, aos terceiros que participam da relação jurídica pré-contratual. Após a análise das situações que ensejam a reparação civil, estudamos as modalidades de responsabilidade civil. Ao final, concluímos que, para fins de apuração de responsabilidade civil pré-contratual, é necessário delimitar o momento da ocorrência do dano e o agente causador, a fim de que se repare o dano causado. / This dissertation aims at analyzing the pre-contractual civil liability under the Labor Law. For this purpose, we initially seek to conceptualize the necessary institutions for the construction of the studied content. Then, we transported the concepts and principles that guide civil contracts to labor relations. Even though Labor Law is guided by specific principles, the principles of Civil Law were used and transposed in moderate terms into Labor Law. We tried to make the differentiation between pre-contract and preliminary negotiations, since this study is crucial to identify the moment when the employment pre-contract begins in order to establish parameters and limits for the determination of civil liability. After establishing the stone concepts of pre-contract and liability, we dealt with the effects of the latter at the moment when a labor pre-contract is executed. It is also important to analyze the situations that permeate the execution of the labor pre-contract, such as interviews and selective tests, job advertisements and their consequences for the formation of the employment contract. We analyzed the civil liability that can be directly attributed not only to the contracting party, but also to third parties that take part in the pre-contractual legal relationship. After analyzing the situations that cause civil remedy claims, we studied the modalities of civil liability. At the end, we conclude that, for purposes of determining pre-contractual civil liability, it is necessary to delimit the moment when the damage occurs and the agent who caused it in order to repair that damage.

O presente trabalho se dedica em apresentar uma nova interpretação do princípio da relatividade dos efeitos contratuais e uma de suas principais conseqüências: a responsabilidade civil do terceiro que contribui com o inadimplemento contratual. Com as transformações ocorridas durante o século XIX, sobretudo em decorrência da Revolução Industrial, o contrato deixou de ser um mero instrumento de circulação de riquezas, para se tornar um instrumento social. Assim, ele não pode mais ser visto como algo que interessa exclusivamente às partes, como determinava a leitura clássica do princípio da relatividade dos efeitos contratuais. A sociedade moderna impõe a necessidade de o contrato ser entendido como um fato social, que produz seus efeitos para além de suas partes. Desse modo, aqueles que são terceiros em relação a ele devem considerar a sua existência, não interferindo negativamente na relação contratual, de forma a causar o inadimplemento da obrigação contratual. Esse dever de respeito é imposto pelo princípio da oponibilidade dos efeitos contratuais, por meio do qual se entende que o direito de crédito decorrente do contrato pode ser oponível a terceiros, que devem respeitá-lo da mesma maneira que respeitam um direito real. Diante disso, defende-se aqui que o princípio da relatividade dos efeitos contratuais deve ser interpretado exclusivamente no sentido de que o contrato apenas gera obrigações para as partes contratuais, o que não significa que terceiros possam ignorar a existência desta relação jurídica. Dessa maneira, se o terceiro celebra com o devedor de um contrato já existente um segundo contrato que impossibilite o cumprimento do primeiro, causando, assim, o inadimplemento contratual, ele deve ser civilmente responsável perante o credor do primeiro contrato. Com o objetivo de alcançar estas conclusões, analisam-se, nessa dissertação, as transformações sofridas pelo direito contratual, a interação entre os seus seis princípios (princípio da liberdade contratual, da obrigatoriedade dos efeitos contratuais, da relatividade dos efeitos contratuais, da boa-fé objetiva, do equilíbrio contratual e da função social do contrato) e os fundamentos da responsabilidade civil que justificam a responsabilidade do terceiro cúmplice do inadimplemento contratual. / This work aims to introduce a new interpretation of the relativity principle of contractual effects and one of its main consequences: third party civil liability that contributes to breach of contract. With the changes that occurred in the 19th century, in particular as a consequence of the Industrial Revolution, the contract was no longer a mere tool for the exchange of wealth it became a social tool. Thus, it no longer can be seen as something of exclusive interest to the parties, as set by the classical interpretation of the relativity principle of contractual effects. Modern society imposes the need for the contract to be understood as a social fact that has its effect beyond the contracting parties. Therefore, third parties must consider its existence, not interfering negatively in the contractual relationship so as to cause a breach of contract. This duty of respect is imposed by the enforceability principle of contractual effects, which provides that the credit right arising from the contract can be enforced against third parties, who have to respect it in the same way that they respect a right in rem. Having said that, this work argues that the relativity principle of contractual effects must be exclusively interpreted in the sense that the contract creates only obligations to the contracting parties, which does not mean that third parties can ignore the existence of this legal relationship. Therefore, if a third party enters into a second contract with a debtor of a pre-existing contract that prevents compliance with the first contract, leading to a breach of contract, this third party should have civil liability before the creditor of the first contract. In order to reach these conclusions, this work analyzes the transformations undergone by contractual law, the interaction between its six principles (contractual freedom, the obligations of contractual effects, relativity of contractual effects, objective good faith, contractual equilibrium and social function of the contract) and the fundamentals of civil liability that justifies the liability of the third party accomplice in a breach of contract.

As obrigações e espécies de responsabilidade civil do arquiteto se originam de diversas fontes legais e normativas, sendo o fio condutor deste conjunto de direitos e deveres a relação contratual existente com o cliente e o contrato social em que esta relação se insere, onde as regras cogentes de Direito Civil e do Direito do Consumidor encontram as normas específicas da classe para compor um quadro normativo complexo e repleto de repercussões práticas. Dentro desta perspectiva, este trabalho busca compreender o contexto normativo em que se enquadram as obrigações e responsabilidade civil do arquiteto. / The obligations and species of civil liability regarding the Architect spawns from several legal and normative sources, being the legal framework of this bundle of rights the contractual relationship with its clients and the social contract in which these relations are developed, being the Private and Consumer Laws the main representation of this larger context through their hard laws, along with the specific rules regarding this class. Through this perspective, this work aims to understand the normative context in which the architect obligations and civil liability are formed.

Il est bien connu que la responsabilité civile appliquée aux intermédiaires techniques de l’internet gouverne bien au-delà de ses destinataires directs. Par le biais de sa fonction normative, elle peut inciter les fournisseurs d’accès et les hébergeurs à restreindre la liberté des utilisateurs du réseau. Pour cette raison, la loi a limité leur responsabilité dès le début des années 2000. Alors que le régime de responsabilité qui en découle est régulièrement au cœur de l’actualité juridique, la neutralité de l’internet fait aujourd’hui l’objet de toutes les attentions. Ce concept émergeant est présenté, tour à tour, comme la condition de la liberté sur le réseau et comme le complice des pires excès. À l’heure où sa consécration légale est proposée avec insistance, il apparaît indispensable de s’enquérir de ses interactions avec une responsabilité civile qui s’inscrit, depuis les origines, au cœur du « droit de l’internet ». La présente recherche illustre, qu’au-delà d’une opposition apparente, les deux concepts peuvent s’enrichir l’un l’autre, pour peu que l’on en fasse une lecture raisonnable. Dans cette optique, les limitations de responsabilité dont bénéficient les intermédiaires techniques épousent les contours de la neutralité. La responsabilité civile appliquée à l’internet s’en trouve éclairée d’un nouveau jour. En retour, la neutralité acquiert une considération pour les dommages qu’elle cause. Elle y gagne un caractère raisonnable qui lui était, jusqu’ici, inconnu. L’espoir est alors permis que, loin du concept destructeur parfois dénoncé, la neutralité de l’internet contribue à équilibrer les relations tumultueuses entre libertés et responsabilité sur le réseau. / It is widely known that the civil liability applied to internet intermediaries governs well beyond its direct recipients. Through its normative function, it can encourage hosters and internet service providers to restrict freedom of network users. For this reason, the law limited their liability in the early 2000s. While this system of liability is regularly at the heart of legal news, the net neutrality is now the subject of all attention. This emerging concept is presented, alternately, as the condition of freedom on the network and as an accomplice of the worst excesses. At the time when its legal consecration is suggested with insistence, it is essential to inquire about its interactions with civil liability recorded at the heart of the "internet law". This study demonstrates that, beyond an apparent opposition, the two concepts can be enriched each other, as long as we make a reasonable reading. In this context, the limitations of liability of the technical intermediaries are close to fit with neutrality. It sheds a new light on the civil liability applied to the internet. In return, neutrality becomes a consideration for the damage it causes. It earns a reasonable characteristic that was unknown so far. Far from a destructive concept often denounced, we can hope that the neutrality of the internet helps balance the tumultuous relationship between freedom and responsibility in the network.

As obrigações e espécies de responsabilidade civil do arquiteto se originam de diversas fontes legais e normativas, sendo o fio condutor deste conjunto de direitos e deveres a relação contratual existente com o cliente e o contrato social em que esta relação se insere, onde as regras cogentes de Direito Civil e do Direito do Consumidor encontram as normas específicas da classe para compor um quadro normativo complexo e repleto de repercussões práticas. Dentro desta perspectiva, este trabalho busca compreender o contexto normativo em que se enquadram as obrigações e responsabilidade civil do arquiteto. / The obligations and species of civil liability regarding the Architect spawns from several legal and normative sources, being the legal framework of this bundle of rights the contractual relationship with its clients and the social contract in which these relations are developed, being the Private and Consumer Laws the main representation of this larger context through their hard laws, along with the specific rules regarding this class. Through this perspective, this work aims to understand the normative context in which the architect obligations and civil liability are formed.

As obrigações e espécies de responsabilidade civil do arquiteto se originam de diversas fontes legais e normativas, sendo o fio condutor deste conjunto de direitos e deveres a relação contratual existente com o cliente e o contrato social em que esta relação se insere, onde as regras cogentes de Direito Civil e do Direito do Consumidor encontram as normas específicas da classe para compor um quadro normativo complexo e repleto de repercussões práticas. Dentro desta perspectiva, este trabalho busca compreender o contexto normativo em que se enquadram as obrigações e responsabilidade civil do arquiteto. / The obligations and species of civil liability regarding the Architect spawns from several legal and normative sources, being the legal framework of this bundle of rights the contractual relationship with its clients and the social contract in which these relations are developed, being the Private and Consumer Laws the main representation of this larger context through their hard laws, along with the specific rules regarding this class. Through this perspective, this work aims to understand the normative context in which the architect obligations and civil liability are formed.