The benefits of cycling are well known and many communities are investing in cycling infrastructure in order to encourage and promote ridership. Safety is a primary concern for new cyclists and remains a barrier for increasing ridership. Understanding what influences cyclist safety requires knowing how many cyclists are riding in an area. Lack of ridership data is a common challenge for cycling research and limits our ability to properly assess safety and risk. The goal of our research was to incorporate new data available through crowdsourcing applications to advance cycling research on ridership and safety in the Capital Regional District (CRD), British Columbia (BC), Canada. To meet our goal, our first analysis assessed how crowdsourced fitness app data can be used to map and to quantify the spatial and temporal variation of ridership. Using a dataset from a popular fitness app Strava, we compared how manual cycling counts conducted at intersections during peak commuting hours in Victoria compared to the number of crowdsourced cyclists during these same count periods. In order to estimate ridership at unsampled manual count locations, we used Poisson regression to model the association between manual counts and infrastructure variables found to influence ridership. Our results found that there was a linear association (r2 between 0.4 and 0.58) between crowdsourced cyclists and manual count cyclists, which amounted to one crowdsourced cyclist representing 51 riders. Crowdsourced cyclist volumes, traffic speeds, on street parking, slope, and time of year were found to significantly influence the amount of cyclists in different count locations with a predictive accuracy of 62%. Overall, crowdsourced data from fitness apps are a biased sample of ridership; however, in urban areas in mid-size North American cities, cyclists using fitness apps may choose similar routes as commuter cyclists. Our second analysis used crowdsourced data on cyclist incidents to determine the factors that influence incident reporting at multiuse trail and roadway intersections. Using incident reports from BikeMaps.org, we characterized attributes of reported incidents at intersections between multiuse trails and roads and also examined infrastructure features at these intersections that are predictors of incident frequency. We conducted site observations at 32 multiuse trail-road intersections in the CRD to determine infrastructure characteristics that influence safety. Using Poisson regression we modeled the relationship between the number of incidents (collision and near misses) and the infrastructure characteristics at multiuse trail-road intersections. We found that collisions were more commonly reported (over near misses) at multiuse trail-road intersections than road-road intersections (38% versus 27%), and incidents involving an injury were more common (35% versus 21%). Cycling volumes, vehicle volumes, and lack of vehicle speed reduction factors were associated with incident frequency. Our analysis was able to use crowdsourced cycling incident data to provide valuable evidence on the factors that influence safety at intersections between multiuse trails and roadways where diverse transportation modes converge. Through this thesis we help to overcome limitations for cycling research and planning by demonstrating how crowdsourced ridership and safety data can help fill gaps and supplement available data. Our methodology integrates the high spatial and temporal resolution of crowdsourced cycling data with the detailed attributes provided by traditional ridership counts. We also demonstrate how volunteered safety data can allow new questions on safety to be explored. Improving data available for cycling research allows for a more comprehensive understanding of the factors that influence ridership and safety and, in turn, informs decisions targeted at increasing cycling. / Graduate

Many cities across the globe are working to facilitate cycling as a sustainable transportation mode through changes to public policy and investments in infrastructure. Examining the costs and benefits of both driving and cycling using the cost benefit analysis (CBA) framework developed in Copenhagen provides an opportunity to identify private and social costs associated with these modes of transport with respect to environmental, social, and economic impacts. This paper outlines the methods used to calculate the per-kilometre costs of driving and cycling in Calgary, Canada, utilizing real-world data and methods from Canadian and global best-practice with the Copenhagen CBA framework as a guide. Transportation costs were calculated for travel time, vehicle ownership, health, collisions, air pollution, climate change, noise, roadway degradation, congestion, and winter maintenance for both driving and cycling. When the costs borne by both individuals and society are calculated for Calgary (in 2015 Canadian dollars) driving costs $0.83 per kilometre and cycling costs $0.08 per kilometre. When the social costs of transport are isolated, the cost of driving one kilometre is $0.10, while cycling one kilometre generates a net social benefit of $0.35. The results of this research show that the Copenhagen CBA framework can be applied in jurisdictions outside Denmark to calculate environmental, social, and economic costs of driving and cycling.

Thesis (MSpor)--University of Stellenbosch, 2007. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of plyometric exercise training on the aerobic and anaerobic capacities of well-trained cyclists. Twenty male competitive cyclists (age: 24 ± SD 5 years, height: 180 ± SD 6 cm and body mass: 77 ± SD 6 kg), including 12 mountain bikers and eight road cyclists were randomly divided into an experimental (n = 13) and a control group (n = 7). Testing included kinanthropometric measurements, vertical jump test, bench pull test, maximal aerobic capacity test, indoor 5-kilometer time trial (TT), anaerobic capacity test (30-second Wingate test) and an outdoor 4.4-kilometer time trial (field test). The plyometric training program had no statistically significant effect on the maximal aerobic capacity, anaerobic capacity, time trial performance (laboratory and field) and vertical jump performance of the experimental group. Selected outcome variables, i.e. VO2max, PPO and MP during the Wingate test and time to complete the laboratory TT, bordered on statistical significance. The experimental group significantly improved their upper body strength. There was also a strong correlation between the outdoor TT and upper body strength (r = 0.72). Although the plyometric training program did not significantly improve the performance of the cyclists, indications were that the experimental group improved their anaerobic power and upper body strength. One previous study in the literature suggested that the effects of a plyometric training program may only become evident a few weeks after completion of the program. It is therefore possible that the cyclists in this study would have experienced the benefits of plyometric training only later, i.e. closer to the competition season when the aim of their training program is to improve power and speed. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doel van die studie was om te bepaal wat die effek van pliometriese oefeninge is op die aërobiese en anaërobiese vermoëns van goed ingeoefende fietsryers. Twintig kompeterende mans fietsryers, (ouderdom: 24 ± SD 5 jaar, lengte: 180 ± SD 6 cm en gewig: 77 ± SD 6 kg), was ewekansig ingedeel in of ‘n eksperimentele (n = 13) of ‘n kontrole groep (n = 7). Die groep sluit twaalf bergfietsryers en agt padfietsryers in. Kinantropometriese metings, vertikale spronghoogte, ‘n bolyf kragtoets (“bench pull test”), ‘n maksimale aërobiese uithouvermoë toets, ‘n binneshuise 5-kilometer tydtoets (TT), ‘n anaërobiese kapasiteit toets (30-sekonde Wingate toets) en ‘n buitemuurse 4.4-kilometer tydtoets (veldtoets) was voltooi gedurende die toetsperiode. Die pliometriese oefenprogram het geen statisties betenisvolle effek op maksimale aërobiese kapasiteit, anaërobiese kapasiteit, tydtoets prestasie (laboratorium en veld) of op vertikale spronghoogte van die eksperimentele groep gehad nie. Spesifieke uitkomsveranderlikes, soos VO2maks, piek en gemiddelde kraguitset gedurende die Wingate toets, en die tyd wat dit geneem het om die laboratorium tydtoets te voltooi, het gegrens aan ‘n statistiese betekenisvolle verbetering in die eksperimentele groep. Die eksperimentele groep het ‘n betekenisvolle verbetering getoon in hul bolyfkrag na die intervensie. Daar was ook ‘n sterk verband tussen die veld tydtoets en die bolyfkrag in die eksperimentele groep (r = 0.72). Hoewel die pliometriese oefenprogram nie die prestasie van die fietsryers betekenisvol verbeter het nie, het dit tekens van verbetering in die eksperimentele groep se anaërobiese en bolyfkrag getoon. ‘n Vorige studie het voorgestel dat ‘n pliometriese inoefeningsprogram slegs na ‘n paar weke na die intervensie ‘n effek sal toon in prestasie. Daarom is dit moontlik dat die fietsryers in die studie die voordele van pliometriese oefeninge eers later ervaar het, nader aan die kompetisiefase wanneer die doel van die oefenprogram is om spoed en krag te verbeter.

Les invasions biologiques sont une cause majeure de perte de biodiversité à l’échelle mondiale. L’impact direct des espèces exotiques envahissantes (EEE) sur la structure et la composition des communautés a été bien documenté. Par contre, leur impact sur le fonctionnement des écosystèmes a été comparativement moins étudié. Dans le présent travail, j’ai mesuré sur le terrain et en conditions expérimentales l’impact de 7 espèces de plantes exotiques particulièrement envahissantes en Europe sur les propriétés chimiques du sol, sur la productivité et sur le stock d’éléments minéraux dans la biomasse. Malgré la diversité des groupes fonctionnels considérés dans notre échantillon (des espèces annuelles aux arbres), des impacts récurrents ont pu être mis en évidence. Les EEE ont toujours une biomasse et une productivité supérieures à celles de la végétation qu’elles envahissent. Il en va de même pour le stock d’éléments minéraux dans la biomasse aérienne. En ce qui concerne le sol, les traits fonctionnels des espèces ne permettent pas de prédire la direction et l’amplitude des impacts. Par contre, ces impacts sur le sol se sont révélés partiellement prévisibles en fonction des conditions écologiques initiales (contexte pédologique). La disponibilité des cations et du P et la concentration en C et N organiques augmentent suite à l’invasion dans les sites initialement pauvres alors que ces mêmes paramètres baissent dans les sites plus eutrophes au départ. Les EEE entraînent, dans une certaine mesure, une homogénéisation des conditions écologiques dans les écosystèmes envahis. Dans un deuxième temps, je me suis attaché à identifier les mécanismes de l’impact de Fallopia japonica sur le cycle de l’azote. Cette espèce, perenne rhizomateuse, adopte une gestion très conservatrice de l’azote en retransloquant jusqu’à 80 % de l’azote des tiges et des feuilles vers le système racinaire en automne avant l’abscission des feuilles. La litière restituée est, de ce fait, pauvre en azote. Ce paramètre, combiné à une teneur élevée en lignine, explique sa faible vitesse de décomposition par rapport à celle de la végétation non envahie. Une grande partie de l’azote de l’écosystème tourne donc en cycle quasi fermé entre les organes de réserve et les parties aériennes de la plante, tandis que l’azote restant est en grande partie bloqué dans la nécromasse de la plante et est donc non disponible pour les espèces concurrentes indigènes. Ce mécanisme explique, sans doute, en partie le succès invasif de l’espèce. A l’avenir, les implications des impacts sur le sol en terme de restauration des communautés devront être étudiées. L’hypothèse d’une influence positive de ces impacts sur l’aptitude compétitive des espèces envahissantes devra être testée. Enfin, une étude plus fonctionnelle des impacts de ces espèces dans des sites contrastés devrait permettre d’identifier les mécanismes impliqués./Biological invasions are a major cause of biodiversity loss worldwide. The direct impact of alien invasive species (AIS) on community structure and composition has been well documented. On the other hand, their impact on ecosystem functioning has been comparatively less studied. In this work, I measured, on the field and in experimental conditions, the impact of 7 highly invasive alien plant species in Europe on soil chemical properties, biomass and aboveground nutrient stock. Despite the high diversity in considered functional groups (from annuals to trees), recurring impacts have been found. AIS had always higher biomass and aboveground nutrient stocks than invaded resident vegetation. Concerning soil, species functional traits did not allow us to predict impact direction and intensity. On the other hand, impacts on soil were partially predictable based on initial ecological conditions (pedologic context). Thus, cations and P availability and organic C and N concentrations increased in initially poor sites and decreased in eutrophic ones. AIS tend to homogenize soil properties across invaded landscapes. In a second part, i tried to identify the mechanisms of the impacts of Fallopia japonica on N cycling. This perrennial rhizomatous species manage N in a very conservative way. About 80 % of aboveground N is translocated to rhizomes before leaves abscission. The litter is therefore poor in N. This parameter combined with a high lignin concentration explains its slow decomposition rate compared to that of uninvaded vegetation. A big part of the ecosystem N is engaged in a nearly closed cycle between above and belowground organs while the remaining N is blocked in the necromass and is thus not available for the indigenous competitors. This mechanism probably explains the invasive success of this species. In the future, the implications of soil properties modifications in terms of community restoration should be studied. The hypothesis of a positive influence of these modifications on the competitive ability of AIS should be tested. At last, a functional study of these soil impacts in contrasted sites should allow us to identify the implied mechanisms.

Live high - train low altitude camps can enhance endurance power at sea level by 1-2% (Levine & Stray-Gunderson, 1997). More convenient methods to simulate altitude exposure are now available, but their effects on performance are less well characterized. In this study, we investigated intermittent hypoxic training (IHT) using an Hypoxicator, a device that produces oxygen-depleted air that athletes breathe intermittently through masks in a small group at a central venue. Twelve highly-competitive, male cyclists and multi-sport athletes (IHT group) underwent IHT in two, four-week bouts separated by eight weeks. Bout one consisted of 20 one-hour exposures and bout two 18 exposures where normal and low-oxygenated air was breathed in alternating five-minute intervals. The percentage of oxygen inhaled by the subjects was adjusted to produce an oxygen saturation of the blood of 88-92% in the first week of the study, decreasing to 76-80% (equivalent to an altitude of approximately 6000m) in the final week. A control group of 13 similar athletes did not use the Hypoxicator. Performance trials and blood tests were at four-week intervals; there were 3 trials (familiarization and reliability) before use of the Hypoxicator, 3 trials after to determine the effect of simulated altitude, then a second four-week exposure and one more trial. The measures of performance were mean power in a 16-km time trial on a Kingcycle ergometer (IHT group only) and power in a lactate-threshold test at 3 mmol/L above baseline (both groups). The measures from the blood tests were haemoglobin and haematocrit. There was a gradual but erratic improvement in performance in the time trial and lactate threshold tests over the course of the study in both groups, indicating an improvement through training. Relative to the last baseline test (Trial 3), the IHT group showed a 0.6% decrease in mean power over and above the effect of training in the 16-km time trial in Trial 4, nine days after last use of IHT. There was a 0.3% increase in mean power independent of the training effect in Trial 7, after the second round of altitude exposure. Uncertainty in these changes in performance was ±3.5% (95% confidence interval). The changes in lactate threshold in trials 4 and 7 indicate a possible improvement as a result of IHT exposure. Uncertainty in these changes was ±4.0%. There were negligible changes in the haemoglobin and hematocrit of either group at any time. There was small evidence of high responders, who were probably subjects with the DD genotype for the angiotensin converting enzyme gene. The time exposed to IHT had no bearing on performance and there was no evidence "peak" in results at either four or eight weeks after exposure to IHT. In summary, four weeks of IHT exposure probably resulted in a trivial effect on 16-km time-trial performance and the effort-independent measures provided no further clear-cut evidence of a performance improvement.

Microbial activity occurs year-round in Arctic soils, including during the winter when soils are frozen. From 2004 to 2008 I monitored soil microbial and nutrient dynamics in low Arctic wet and dry sedge meadows near Churchill, Manitoba. I documented a consistent annual pattern in which soil microbial biomass (MB) and soil nutrients peak in late winter, and decrease during the early stages of spring thaw, remaining in low abundance during the summer. Based on a series of experiments, resource shortages do not appear to be the cause of the microbial decline, as has been hypothesized. Observations and theoretical considerations regarding soil physical properties indicate that this decrease is driven by the influx of liquid water at thaw that brings about a rapid change in the chemical potential of water, leading to cell lysis. I have used 15N isotope tracing to show that inorganic nitrogen is taken up very quickly at thaw by the roots of the dominant plant, Carex aquatilis. This represents a critical window of opportunity for these plants, as nitrogen remains abundant only for a short time. The described annual pattern was pronounced in wet sedge sites, but some inter-annual variation is evident, for example a post-thaw soil nitrogen pulse in 2006, and low winter MB in 2008. In the dry sedge meadow, fluctuations in MB and nutrients were dampened relative to wet sites, and the annual pattern was variable, particularly after 2006. Over four years, peak winter values of soil MB and nutrient variables declined in both wet and dry sites, and this could be related to a drying trend. This work improves our understanding of the controls on decomposition and primary productivity in a system that is experiencing climate warming and increased precipitation. Changes to hydrology, carbon and nitrogen cycling, and primary productivity will have further effects on vegetation communities and higher trophic levels, including several species of migratory birds.

This study quantified the changes in pedaling mechanics and energy expenditure accompanying a posterior shift in cleat placement during prolonged cycling. Six male competitive cyclists participated. Each subject was asked to complete two separate hour long rides using traditional cleat placement and a novel heel placement, respectively. Expired gasses, kinematics, and EMG from 7 lower limb muscles were collected at three time intervals during each ride. No significant difference in O2 utilization was seen (p=0.905). A significant difference was seen in sagittal plane knee angle (p=0.008) and angular velocity (p=0.003) in the heel condition, demonstrating a more extended knee and lower peaks in angular velocity. Musculo-tendon kinematic data showed no differences. Tibialis anterior (TA) iEMG was higher in the heel condition, and SOL and TA showed differences in timing between conditions. These results demonstrate changes in ankling patterns and knee joint kinematics as adaptations to heel pedaling. / School of Physical Education, Sport, and Exercise Science

The aim of this thesis was to directly test the key underpinnings of recent propositions for systems of central control of exercise regulation. Fatigue and exercise tolerance have traditionally been explained through peripheral mechanisms, such as excitation-contraction coupling failure and the inability to supply sufficient metabolic substrate to contracting muscle in order to meet increasing energy demand. More recently, models of central control, which are proposed to regulate exercise intensity in an anticipatory/feedforward manner, with the ultimate aim of avoiding physiological ‘catastrophe’, have received a great deal of attention. This thesis investigated several of the key requirements and mechanisms stated in these models. The central governor model (CGM) and teleoanticipation are stated to use a combination of prior experience and distance knowledge of an exercise bout to work in a feedforward manner, so that a pacing strategy is set before exercise commences which ensures the bout is completed in an optimum time but in the absence of premature fatigue. Study one examined the influence of distance knowledge, prior experience and distance feedback on the setting and regulation of a pacing strategy in 4 km time trial (TT) cycling in trained cyclists (n = 18). When performing 4 × 4 km TT intervals, it was found that prior experience of the exercise (in the absence of distance feedback and distance knowledge) allowed the creation of a pacing strategy that produced a performance which was as competitive as cyclists who were provided with prior experience, distance knowledge and distance feedback. The difference in TT completion time between groups (CON = feedback group, EXP = no feedback group) was reduced with subsequent TT (CON TT1 367 ± 21 s; EXP TT1 409 ± 45 s; CON TT2 373 ± 19 s; EXP TT2 389 ± 30 s; CON TT3 375 ± 18 s; EXP TT3 383 ± 26 s; CON TT4 373 ± 20 s; EXP TT4 373 ± 14 s), so that by the final TT, completion time between groups was almost exactly the same. It was concluded that when sufficient prior experience is attained in the absence of distance knowledge and feedback, a successful pacing strategy can be set. In order for pacing to be set prior to an exercise bout and adjusted in a feedforward/anticipatory manner during exercise, an internal mechanism must exist which monitors the passage of time. Study two examined the accuracy and robustness of this ‘internal clock’ by assessing cyclist’s (n = 16) ability to gauge the distance they had cycled during repeated 4 km and 6 km TT. The internal clock was shown to be inaccurate to absolute measures of distance, but showed a calibration capacity following experience of a TT of unknown distance (24.6 ± 18.2 % error in distance judged completed vs. 8.2 ± 5.5 % error in distance judged completed). This process was fragile and occurred in the absence of any significant performance improvement. It was concluded that relative quantities appear more important in creating a pacing strategy, and that times are of greater importance than distances. Study three examined the influence of comparative performance feedback in a field setting in 4 km track TT cycling in trained cyclists (n = 5). Correct feedback produced a significantly faster TT time (t4 = -3.10, p < 0.05) than non-contingent feedback (341 ± 8 s vs. 350 ± 12 s), with differences in mean lap speed apparent between the conditions at the start of the TT (t4 = 4.71, p < 0.05) and at the end of the TT (t4= 3.45, p < 0.05; t4 = 3.30, p < 0.05). The study provided empirical support for the assumption that performance feedback is advantageous during exercise and provided insights into past and present exercise comparison and its role on the setting of a pacing strategy. A central component of the CGM and theories of central exercise regulation is the role of afferent feedback during exercise and the premature termination of exercise before a true maximum intensity has been reached. Study four used acetaminophen to blunt cyclists’ (n = 13) pain response during ten mile (16.1 km) TT in order to disrupt the afferent feedback processes. When using acetaminophen, cyclists produced significantly faster (t12 = 2.55, p < 0.05) TT completion times (1575 ± 96 s) than under a placebo condition (1605 ± 122 s). When using acetaminophen, cyclists had a higher power output during the middle section of the TT (F1, 12 = 4.79, p < 0.05), yet showed no significant difference in RPE (F1,12 = 0.72, p > 0.05) or pain scores (F1,12 = 0.30, p > 0.05). It was concluded that acetaminophen reduced levels of pain during the TT, thereby disrupting the comparative afferent feedback mechanism and allowing cyclists access to a ‘metabolic reserve’. The research presented has advanced our knowledge and supported propositions of models of central control and regulation during exercise. The research has provided further insight in the role of prior experience, distance knowledge, distance feedback, the internal clock, performance feedback and afferent feedback on the setting and maintenance of a pacing strategy in 4, 6 and 16.1 km TT cycling.

There were two primary goals in this investigation. The first goal was to determine if results from field tests (time-trials and a Conconi incremental test) are related to performance in mass-start long-distance bicycle races. The second goal was to investigate inter-relationships among field test variables. The testing variables measured were critical velocity (CV), Conconi anaerobic threshold (AT) velocity, 4mM AT velocity, fatigue index, peak blood lactate, and anaerobic work capacity. Participants were USCF 30 category 1 through 5 cyclists. Participants performed one 20.75 km and two 10.37 km all-out tests in the field. They also performed an incremental test. The tests were performed at one-week intervals. Results from the field tests were compared to recent mass-start racing performance. Results indicated that Conconi AT velocity was related to performance in a 161-km race. There was also a relationship between 4mM AT velocity and CV and between Conconi AT velocity and 4mM AT velocity. It was concluded that field tests might provide information about performance ability in mass-start long-distance bicycle races.

In an effort to shift reliance away from single-occupancy vehicles, many cities have been investing in active and public transportation, and promoting multi-modal travel. It has been recognized both academically and professionally that there is a need to address issues regarding access to transit stations and nodes – the ‘first mile problem.’ Many see bicycles as the answer to the first mile problem; however, scholarly literature has generally neglected exploring how to accommodate bicycles at different stations. This practicum investigates the first mile problem in Edmonton, Alberta, and identifies existing challenges with bicycle access to Edmonton’s Light Rail Transit (LRT) system. The findings suggest three distinct LRT ‘station types’, each requiring a nuanced suite of infrastructure improvements in order to encourage more bicycle access. Further, these improvements can only be realized through the development and execution of comprehensive policies and regulations that support cycling and bike-transit integration. / October 2016