The aim of this study is to examine which strategies three 18-year-old string students (one violinist and two cellists) use when they practice on their own. The empirical data for the study come from six observations of the students’ practicing on certain pieces that were handed out to them. During the observations, the students filmed themselves, and no one else was present in the room during the practicing sessions. The observations were later transcribed and analyzed, which means that its contents were compared and contrasted to results of previous research in the field of practicing. The results of this study show that all three participants first tried to gain an overview of the piece by playing it through from beginning to end. For the most part, the students played through longer parts of the music, but they also stopped to repeat single notes or half/whole bars. The students were also able to identify certain parts of the music that were more difficult. These parts received more work from the students and they repeated the difficult bars several times. What the students found difficult were for example fast passages, complicated rhythms, changing of position and intonation. The observations also show that only two of the students made musical interpretations while practicing. The students sometimes created their own exercises correlated to passages in the music that they practiced, which meant for example changing slurs or playing the melody together with an open string to sharpen the intonation.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Curriculum and Instruction / Frederick Burrack / The purpose of this research is to discover influences that guide practice habits of collegiate instrumental music students, explore student self-discovery of practice needs, and create strategies that can be used to improve the quality of students’ individual music practice. To best address these intentions, three unique yet sequential studies were implemented. The Discovery study focused on the uncovering prior experiences that shaped students’ practice habits before entering college to get an idea of how current practice habits were formed. The Video Self-Confrontation study had participants watch a video recording of a practice sessions to address possible gaps between their perception and the reality of their practice habits. The video self-confrontation prompted discussion about possibilities for enhanced practice skills. The Intervention study expanded upon information from previous studies to develop and administer personalized interventions designed to address weaknesses and identify effect on participants’ practice habits. Independent practice, the time after instruction when a student works toward mastery of skills or concepts, is widely recognized as a critical component of improvement in the performance music. These studies aim to help bridge the gap between practice theories and optimal experiences. These studies explored elements related to practice behavior. Because each person had unique experiences and diverse ways to describe their experiences, a methodology for each study was required that allowed for structured data collection and organization. As such, the constructivist paradigm supported these studies.

While considerable research has explored the skills elite professionals use to sustain performance excellence in a multitude of disciplines, much less research has focused on professional musicians. Multi-faceted skills are needed to maintain performance excellence. This research investigates the deliberate skills and processes professional opera singers employ to preserve elite performance. Data drawn from individual semi-structured interviews with ten professional opera singers, with a minimum career length of ten to twenty years, were analyzed within the methodology of grounded theory. Results revealed a strong role for creation of a music "road-map" in the context of deliberate preparedness in both physical and mental skills, which contributed to high levels of learning self-efficacy. High-level skills cultivated in the preparation phase were applied directly within the context of live performance, facilitated "flow" experiences, involved energy exchanges with other performers and audiences, and resulted in higher levels of performing self-efficacy.

While considerable research has explored the skills elite professionals use to sustain performance excellence in a multitude of disciplines, much less research has focused on professional musicians. Multi-faceted skills are needed to maintain performance excellence. This research investigates the deliberate skills and processes professional opera singers employ to preserve elite performance. Data drawn from individual semi-structured interviews with ten professional opera singers, with a minimum career length of ten to twenty years, were analyzed within the methodology of grounded theory. Results revealed a strong role for creation of a music "road-map" in the context of deliberate preparedness in both physical and mental skills, which contributed to high levels of learning self-efficacy. High-level skills cultivated in the preparation phase were applied directly within the context of live performance, facilitated "flow" experiences, involved energy exchanges with other performers and audiences, and resulted in higher levels of performing self-efficacy.

Conscientiousness-related personality traits are relevant predictors of many outcomes in achievement domains outside sport. They have also been associated with several outcomes in sport, however, their relative role on athletes’ deliberate practice (DP) and other criteria of expertise development has not been investigated. The overall aim of this dissertation was to examine the role of conscientiousness-related traits on sport expertise development. It had six specific purposes: (a) to examine the structural validity of conscientiousness-related measures; (b) to understand whether athletes’ DP amounts, skill level, and other criteria of expertise development could be predicted by these measures; (c) to identify the best personality predictor and combination of predictors that explained the maximal variance in different criteria of expertise development; (d) to examine whether grit facets predicted athletes’ practice engagement across a demanding sport season; (e) to explore coaches’ perspectives on the behavioural indicators of conscientious, gritty, and self-controlled athletes in training; and (f) to explore coaches’ views about how these personality traits may impact athletes’ quantity and quality of practice and development toward higher skill levels. The dissertation used a sequential explanatory mixed-methods design, wherein Phase 1 (Articles 1, 2, and 3) quantitatively pursued purposes (a) to (c), Phase 2 (Article 4) addressed (d), and Phase 3 (Article 5) qualitatively addressed (e) and (f). Article 1 tested the factor structure of the Brief Self-Control Scale in sport and showed distinct associations between self-control variables and (a) sport-specific practice amounts, (b) engagement in various practice contexts, and (c) threats to commitment to one’s sport, in a diverse sport sample. Article 2 conducted factor analyses of the Grit Scale in sport and examined a full latent variable model showing associations between grit variables and several criteria of expertise development. In particular, perseverance of effort associated with athletes’ weekly amounts of DP, engagement in different practice contexts, and skill level, while consistency of interests associated with athletes’ commitment to their sport. Article 3 comprised two studies. In Study 1, path analyses were used to assess the role of conscientiousness on criteria of expertise development. At the broad level, conscientiousness predicted athletes’ engagement in practice contexts and commitment to their sport; at the facet-level, achievement-striving was the best predictor of athletes’ weekly DP and engagement in practice contexts. The systematic test of the role of self-control (Article 1), grit (Article 2), and conscientiousness (Article 3, Study1) for key criteria of expertise development culminated with Study 2 of Article 3, which reported comparative analyses of the predictive ability of self-control, grit, and conscientiousness facets—which had shown to be significant predictors when assessed separately—for the criterion measures of sport expertise. Study 2 showed that (a) perseverance of effort was the best predictor of athletes’ weekly DP, engagement in mandatory practice, and the only predictor of higher skill level, (b) achievement-striving best predicted athletes’ engagement in optional practice, and (c) consistency of interests best predicted athletes’ commitment to their sport. Article 4 tested whether athletes’ self-reported levels of grit (broad and facets) were longitudinally associated with their coach-reported practice engagement throughout one sport season. Perseverance of effort was the grit variable most related to indicators of practice engagement, the only variable related to overall practice engagement across three time points, and the only variable marginally associated with athletes’ stability of practice engagement over time. Article 5 explored coaches’ views about the behavioural indicators of athletes’ conscientiousness, grit, and self-control in the daily training environment and how these traits impacted athletes’ training and development. Coaches described (a) conscientious athletes as systematic and detail-oriented, highly considerate of others, and highly engaged in self-regulation; (b) gritty athletes as those who persevere despite adversity and work hard in practice; and (c) self-controlled athletes as those who control impulses, resist temptations, and delay gratification. Coaches believe grit, conscientiousness, and self-control play important roles on athletes’ development toward higher skill levels, but results generally highlighted the preponderance of perseverance of effort. Potential mechanisms (e.g., conscientiousness—self-regulation—practice quality and conscientiousness—self-regulation—skill level) were highlighted to help explain the personality-expertise link found in Phases 1 and 2. This dissertation contributed to the literature on sport expertise by parsimoniously identifying conscientiousness-related personality traits that were associated with measures of athletes’ practice quantity, quality, and stability, commitment to sport, and higher skill level. Although several facets (i.e., perseverance of effort, consistency of interests, achievement-striving, self-discipline, and dutifulness) showed associations with practice and performance-related outcomes, this dissertation generally highlighted the role of grit facets. In particular, while perseverance of effort was the best predictor of athletes’ amounts of DP, the only grit variable associated with quality practice engagement over time, and the only predictor of higher skill level, consistency of interests was the best predictor of commitment variables. Furthermore, results based on coaches’ descriptions (a) provided behavioural indicators of conscientiousness-related traits that serve as reference points for practitioners aiming to help athletes develop desirable traits, (b) suggested that gritty athletes ‘work hard’ and conscientious athletes ‘work smart’, and (c) proposed mechanisms to explain the personality-expertise link found in the quantitative studies. Taken together, the results of this dissertation suggest that the tendency to persevere despite adversity and mindfully use self-regulated processes seems to be a powerful predisposition for athletes’ development toward expert levels of performance.

Övning är en helt central del av tillvaron för alla som aspirerar att bli professionella klassiska musiker och som med så mycket annat så finns det digitala verktyg avsedda för att underlätta och effektivisera denna process. I studien undersöktes hur applikationen Modacity i kombination med inspelning kan användas och om den erbjöd några fördelar resp. nackdelar under instuderingen av Capriccio da Camera av Berhard Krol. Studien kom fram till att övning med Modacity erbjuder en mängd fördelar gentemot traditionell övning. Framförallt så underlättar applikationens logiska arbetsflöde att uppnå ”flow” och leder till ökad effektivitet i övningen. Den är dock inte en helhetslösning för hela instuderingen av ett nytt stycke och vissa tekniska begränsningar gör att användbarheten minskar något. Sammantaget så är dock applikationen ett potent hjälpmedel och området med mobilapplikationer i övningen kommer säkerligen att fortsätta utvecklas i framtiden.

<p> Ericsson, Krampe and Tesch-Römer (1993) have concluded from work with musicians that expertise is the result of "deliberate practice". So how valid is this conclusion in sport? Four groups of wrestlers (n=42); 2 international and 2 club (current & retired) recalled the hours spent in wrestling activities since beginning wrestling. All groups had begun at a similar age (M =13.2 ± 0.6year) and had been wrestling for 10 years or more. Contrary to Ericsson et al., practice alone activities did not discriminate between the groups, only practice with others. At 6 years into their careers, the international group practised 4.5 hour/week more than the club wrestlers and at age 20 years the international wrestlers had accumulated over 1000 more hours of practice with others. Evaluations of wrestling activities showed that those judged as relevant, were also rated high for concentration and enjoyment. Diary data were collected from current wrestlers, however, no differences were found for time spent in wrestling activities. The international wrestlers spent longer travelling to practice, which reflected the necessity to train at a club with the best sparring partners. Practice with others yielded high correlations between estimates for a typical week and the diary data for the international wrestlers only, suggesting a more consistent training schedule for this group. In conclusion Ericsson et al.s' definition of "deliberate practice" needs to be reconsidered. It is suggested that "maintenance" hours should be considered separately from practice, and that future studies focus on what it is that motivates people to practice.</p> / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc)

För att nå en hög nivå av expertis inom sporten ishockey så krävs det att spelare har mycket goda och specifika motoriska, fysiologiska och psykologiska färdigheter. Tidigare forskning på unga elitsatsande fotbollsspelare har visat att de som nått en hög nivå, har en högre grad av självreglerat lärande. Syftet med studien var att undersöka självreglerat lärande, samt utforma och utvärdera en metod för att öka graden av självreglerat lärande, hos unga elitsatsande ishockeyspelare. Studien var av kvasi-experimentell design där ett lag fungerade som interventionsgrupp (Sub-elit, n = 15) och ett annat lag fungerande som kontrollgrupp (Elit, n = 18). Interventionen bestod av att spelarna i interventionsgruppen fick utvärdera sin egen prestation och utveckling en gång i veckan under fem veckor. Spelarna i båda grupperna fyllde i självskattningsskalan SRL-TT före och efter interventionen. Sex spelare intervjuades om deras upplevelser av självreglerat lärande och interventionen. Resultaten visar på att det fanns en skillnad vad gäller graden av självreglerat lärande mellan spelarna på högsta nivå (elit) och spelarna på en nivå under (sub-elit), men att interventionen inte hade någon statistiskt signifikant effekt på spelarnas förmåga att ägna sig åt självreglerat lärande. De intervjuade spelarna anser dock att interventionen har fått dem att tänka mer på sin utveckling och hur de presterat. Spelarna anser också att en dialog med tränarna leder till att de själva tänker mer på vad de behöver utveckla i sitt spel. / To achieve a high level of expertise in the sport of ice hockey, players need very good and specific motor, physiological and psychological skills. Previous research on young elite football players has shown that those who have reached a high skill level have a higher degree of self-regulated learning. The purpose of the study was to investigate self-regulated learning, and to design and evaluate a method for increasing the degree of self-regulated learning, in young elite ice hockey players. The study was of quasi-experimental design where one team was intervention group (Sub-elite, n = 15) and another team functioning as a control group (Elite, n = 18). The intervention consisted of the players in the intervention group evaluated their own performance and development once a week for five weeks. Players in both groups completed the self-assessment scale SRL TT before and after the intervention. Six players were interviewed about their experiences of self-regulated learning and the intervention. Results indicate that there was a difference in self-regulated learning between elite- and sub-elite players, and that the present intervention did not have a statistically significant effect on the players’ degree of self-regulated learning. The interviewed players, however, believe that the intervention has made them think more about their development and how they performed. The players also believe that dialogue with the coaches leads them to think more about what they need to develop in their game.

Sjukskrivningstalen är höga bland terapeuter och handledning ses som ett viktigt stöd i både utbildning och yrkesutövning. Trots det så har få metoder fokuserat på terapeuters egna upplevelse av handledning. Några nya metoder med syfte att öka intrapersonell och psykologisk kapacitet hos terapeuter i arbete med klienter är Deliberate Practice (DP), Feedback Informed Treatment (FIT) och Self-compassion (SC). Under 2018 användes dessa metoder av två handledare som handledde sex studentterapeuter under utbildning. Denna studie undersöker hur studentterapeuterna upplevde det nya arbetssättet. Studien bygger på semistrukturerade intervjuer som har analyserats tematiskt utifrån en induktiv ansats. Resultatet visar att ett upplevelse- och feedbackbaserat arbetssätt uppfattades som tidseffektivt, strukturerat och målinriktat. Detta skapar aktivitet och delaktighet, en stark gruppdynamik samt god allians med handledarna vilket ger gott klimat för inlärning och utveckling. Några negativa aspekter på arbetssättet är att det är tidskrävande, att fokusering på prestation och feedback upplevs som ett hinder som kan skapa stress, ångest samt en känsla av att utvärderingen inte blir rättvis. Sammantaget visar resultatet att arbetssättet uppfattas som gynnsamt för studentterapeuter i utbildningsterapi gällande utveckling av både terapeutiska färdigheter och intrapersonell kapacitet. En utmaning för arbetssättet är att handledningen är obligatorisk, hierarkisk och betygsgrundande. För att generera goda förutsättningar för arbetssättet behövs mer utrymme i utbildningen skapas, fördelarna med arbetssättet belysas och ett tillåtande klimat med fokus på allians mellan studenter och handledare upprätthållas. Därtill är det också viktigt att beakta studenternas förmåga att vara självmedkännande. / There are high rates of sick-leave among therapists and supervision is seen as an important support in both professional practice and during education. Despite this, there are few methods that focuses on therapists' experience of supervision. Some new methods with the aim to increase the intrapersonal and psychological capacity of therapists in work with clients are Deliberate Practice (DP), Feedback Informed Treatment (FIT) and Self-Compassion (SC). During 2018, these methods were used by two supervisors who supervised six student therapists during training. This study examines how the student therapists experienced the new way of working. To collect the data semi-structured interviews were conducted, to further be analyzed thematically based on an inductive approach. The result showed that an experience- and feedback-based approach was perceived as efficient, structured and goal-oriented. This created activity and participation, a strong group dynamic and a good alliance with the supervisors, which provided a good climate for learning and development. Some negative aspects of the work method were that it’s a time-consuming. Further, focusing on performance and feedback was perceived as an obstacle that could create stress, anxiety and a feeling that the evaluation was not fair. The result showed overall that the way of working was perceived as beneficial for student therapists in education therapy regarding the development of both therapeutic skills and intrapersonal capacity. A challenge is that supervision is mandatory, hierarchical and that it’s a graded task. In order to generate good conditions for the work method more available space is needed within program. The advantages of the method need to be highlighted and an open climate with focus on alliance between students and supervisors need to be maintained. It is also important to consider the students' ability to be self-compassionate.

<p>Imagery is an individual and cognitive process (Morris, Spittle, & Watt, 2005). This study has therefore qualitatively examined following objectives: (1) elite powerlifters imagery experiences and (2) if elite powerlifters use imagery deliberately. Five elite powerlifters participated in the study (3 men, 2 women), they were 21-37 years old (M = 27.6; SD = 6.1). The Individual Profile of Imagery Experiences in Sport (IPIES; Weibull, 2008b) was modified and used to meet the objectives for the study. Imagery was used by all elite powerlifters. Several imagery patterns were experienced, and the most common one was <em>Good lift. </em>A few imagery patterns were used by more than one individual; they were however experienced in different ways.<em> </em>The most common purpose was to increase motivation. Through imagery the powerlifters experienced both positive and negative effects. The negative effect was reported in spontaneous imagery, which was experienced by three powerlifters. Deliberate practice was categorized from several imagery patterns experienced by three powerlifters. This study supports the Analytical framework of imagery experiences (Weibull, in press).</p> / <p>Visualisering är en individuell, inre kognitiv process (Morris, Spittle, & Watt, 2005). Denna studie har därför kvalitativt undersökt följande syften: (1) elitstyrkelyftares visualiseringsupplevelser samt (2) om elitstyrkelyftare använder visualisering avsiktligt. I studien deltog 5 elitstyrkelyftare (3 män, 2 kvinnor) som var 21-37 år gamla (M = 27.6; SD = 6.1). Individual Profile of Imagery Experiences in Sport (IPIES; Weibull, 2008b) modifierades och användes för att uppnå studiens syften. Visualisering användes av samtliga styrkelyftare. Flera olika visualiseringsmönster upplevdes, vanligast var <em>Bra lyft. </em>Vissa visualiseringsmönster upplevdes av flera styrkelyftare, dock på olika sätt. Vanligaste syftet för visualiseringsanvändande var att öka motivation. Visualisering upplevdes ge både positiva och negativa effekter. Negativa effekter upplevdes av spontan visualisering som rapporterades av tre styrkelyftare. Ett antal visualiseringsmönster klassificerades som avsiktlig träning hos tre styrkelyftare. Denna studie stödjer den Analytiska referensramen för visualiseringsupplevelser (Weibull, i tryck).</p>