Catharanthine is derived from the Catharanthus roseus plant and is an analog to ibogaine, a drug that reduces opioid and alcohol withdrawal symptoms and decreases drug self-administration in both animals and humans. Catharanthine has promise to be an alternative pharmacological treatment for addiction without the adverse side effects associated with ibogaine. The objective of this study was to evaluate catharanthine’s effects on dopamine (DA) transmission in the mesolimbic DA system as well as determine its effects on both ethanol withdrawal induced anxiety and drug-seeking behaviors in mice. We hypothesized that catharanthine would inhibit evoked DA release in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) while also reducing anxiety and drug seeking behaviors in mice. We found that superfusion of catharanthine (1-100 µM) to mouse brain slices significantly inhibits evoked DA release in the NAc of the striatum in a dose dependent manner, while also slowing DA reuptake through inhibition of the dopamine transporter (DAT), measured using fast-scan cyclic voltammetry (FSCV). We also found that intraperitoneal administration of catharanthine in live mice significantly increases extracellular DA, measured via microdialysis with electrochemical detection. Catharanthine inhibition of evoked DA release was significantly reduced by the non-selective nAChR antagonist mecamylamine, the α4 nAChR antagonist dihydro-β-erythroidine hydrobromide (DhβE) and the α6 nAChR antagonist α-conotoxin MII, suggesting that catharanthine inhibits α4 and α6 nAChRs in the NAc. Iontophoresis and in-vivo data indicates that catharanthine slows DA reuptake and increases extracellular DA in the NAc through partial inhibition of DATs. Catharanthine also blocked increases in anxiety-like behavior during ethanol withdrawal in mice in the elevated plus maze. Lastly, preliminary data suggests that catharanthine increases both water and ethanol drinking in a 24-hour two-bottle choice drinking paradigm, which was contrary to our hypothesis.

Made available in DSpace on 2015-07-22T20:49:29Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2011-01-26 / Objetivo: O objetivo do presente estudo foi avaliar o perfil da densidade do transportador dopaminérgico utilizando SPECT em pacientes com Movimento Periódico das Pernas (MPP) e a influência do exercício físico agudo na concentração do DAT após um teste de esforço máximo (TEM). Métodos: Para isso 16 pacientes (8 grupo CTRL e 8 grupo Experimental) realizaram uma polissonografia (PSG) basal para a avaliação do padrão de sono e do índice do MPP. Após a PSG basal foi realizado o SPECT basal. Posteriormente os voluntários realizaram um TEM no período da manhã, após 2 horas, um novo exame de SPECT, e na mesma noite uma PSG para avaliar o efeito do exercício físico agudo no DAT e no padrão do sono. Resultados: Os resultados encontrados demonstraram que o grupo experimental apresentou valores menores no perfil da densidade do DAT no momento basal na região do estriado (p=0,03), foi demonstrado também uma redução do índice de MPP no grupo experimental (p=0,01) e um aumento da porcentagem do estagio 1 do sono NREM em ambos os grupos após o TEM (p=0,02). O estagio 2 do sono (p=0,02) e sono de ondas lentas (p=0,01) apresentaram diferenças entre os grupos no momento basal. Conclusão: Nossos resultados mostram que pacientes com MPP apresentaram uma menor densidade de DAT na região do putâmen esquerdo comparado ao grupo CTRL e uma sessão de exercício físico agudo (TEM) não alterou este perfil. Esses achados sugerem que alterações na densidade do DAT, talvez estejam relacionados a prática de exercício físico crônico. / Restless legs syndrome and periodic leg movement are sleep-related movement disorders and studies have shown changes in striatal dopaminergic activity in patients with these disorders. Physical exercise has been shown to improve the symptoms of restless legs syndrome and periodic leg movement, as has treatment with dopamine agonists. However, the mechanism by which physical exercise acts as a nonpharmacological treatment in improving symptoms of restless legs syndrome and periodic leg movement remains unknown. We evaluated dopamine transporter density profiles in 16 sedentary patients (control and experimental - with periodic leg movement, groups) and the influence of acute physical exercise on its concentration after a maximal exercise test. Each patient underwent baseline polysomnography to evaluate sleep patterns and periodic leg movement index values. After obtaining the polysomnography baseline, the single photon emission computer tomography baseline was determined. Subsequently, the volunteers performed a maximal exercise test in the morning, followed by a single photon emission computer tomography two hours later and polysomnography that night, to assess the effect of acute physical exercise on dopamine transporter and sleep patterns. The results showed significant lower dopamine transporter baseline densities in the striatum region for the experimental group. The results also showed a significant reduction in the periodic leg movement rate in the experimental group and a significant increased percentage of stage-1 non-REM sleep in both groups after maximal exercise test. Significant differences between the groups were only observed for Stage 2 sleep and slow wave sleep. Our results show that patients with periodic leg movement had a lower dopamine transporter density in the left putamen region compared to the control group and an acute physical exercise (maximal exercise test) did not alter this profile, providing evidence that this improvement is the result of chronic physical exercise. / TEDE / BV UNIFESP: Teses e dissertações

Fundação de Amparo a Pesquisa no Estado do Rio Grande do Sul / Animal models as reserpine are helpful to understand the pathophysiology of several diseases with involuntary movements, as Parkinson s disease (PD), and to search efficient treatments. The present study tested the effects of reserpine on behavioral alterations induced by reserpine in rats and worms, with emphasis in oxidative and dopaminergic parameters, and the effect of the antioxidant gallic acid (GA) in reserpine-exposed rats. As result, reserpine (1mg/Kg, sc, for 3 consecutive days) increased the frequency of vacuous chewing movements (VCMs) in rats in relation to controls, and maintained this increase for at least 3 days after reserpine withdrawal. Treatment with GA (4.5 , 13.5 or 40.5 mg/kg/day, po) for 3 days reverted reserpine-induced increase in VCMs, showing protective effect. Neither reserpine nor GA changed oxidative parameters (TBARS and DCFH-DA oxidation), antioxidant levels (proteic and non-proteic thiol) and the activity of Na+,K+-ATPase (total and α-subunit) in striatum and cortex. Afterward, studies were performed with Caenorhanditis elegans due its several advantages in studies of neurodegeneration and of drugs mechanism of action. L1-larval stage C. elegans were exposed to reserpine (30 ou 60 μM) for different times. Reserpine decreased the survival, development, food intake, locomotor rate on food and dopamine (DA) levels in worms and it had effect on egg laying and defecation cycles. Morphological evaluations of dopaminergic cephalic (CEP) neurons in BY200 worms (with GFP coupled to dat-1 gene) reveled neurodegeneration by: 1) decreased fluorescence intensity, 2) decreased the number of intact neurons, and 3) increased the number of shrunken somas per worm. These effects were unrelated to reserpine s effect on dat-1 gene expression. Interestingly, the reserpine effects on locomotor rate, dopaminergic CEP neurons morphology and dat-1 gene expression were reverted after reserpine withdrawal. Furthermore, reserpine decreased the survival of vesicular monoamine transporter (VMAT) and dat-1 loss-of-function mutant worms, but no of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH, cat-2) and dopaminergic receptors (dop-1, dop-2, dop-3 e dop-4) loss-of-function mutants in relation to wild-type N2 worms. Reserpine also decreased the survival of worms pre-exposed to DA; and it activated SKN-1 detoxification pathway. Moreover, no differences were found in DAT and TH immunoreactivity in striatum of rats treated with reserpine and/or GA. The GA protective effects against reserpine-induced VCMs in rats are probably not related to its antioxidant and antiapoptotic properties or monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibition. As conclusion, the reserpine decreases DA levels though action on VMAT, and it induces neurotoxicity/neurodegeneration due probably an increase on extracellular DA contents resulted from changes on DAT function. More studies evaluating the reserpine effect on DAT and the GA mechanism of protection are necessary. / Modelos animais como o da reserpina auxiliam no entendimento da fisiopatologia de diversas doenças que se manifestam por movimentos involuntários, como a doença de Parkinson (DP), e na busca por formas de tratamento. O presente trabalho avaliou mecanismos envolvidos na indução de alterações comportamentais induzidas por reserpina em ratos e vermes com ênfase em parâmetros oxidativos e dopaminérgicos, e a ação do antioxidante ácido gálico (AG) em ratos tratados com reserpina. Como resultado, a reserpina (1mg/Kg, sc, por 3 dias consecutivos) aumentou a frequência de movimentos de mascar no vazio (MMVs) em ratos em relação ao controle, e manteve esse aumento por pelo menos 3 dias após o término das administrações da reserpina. O tratamento com AG (4,5 ou 13,5 ou 40,5 mg/kg/day, vo) por 3 dias reverteu esse aumento dos MMVs, mostrando efeito protetor. Nem reserpina nem o AG alteraram os parâmetros avaliados de dano oxidativo (TBARS e oxidação da DCFH-DA), de antioxidantes (tiol protéico e não protéico) e a atividade da Na+,K+-ATPase (total e α-subunidade) no estriado e córtex cerebral. Estudos posteriores foram realizados em Caenorhanditis elegans devido as diversas vantagens oferecidas por esse modelo animal em estudos de neurodegeneração e de investigação do mecanismo de ação de drogas. C. elegans em estágio larval L1 foram expostos a reserpina (30 ou 60 μM) por diferentes tempos. A reserpina reduziu a sobrevivência, o desenvolvimento, a ingestão de alimento, a atividade locomotora na comida e as concentrações de dopamina (DA) nos vermes, e afetou a postura de ovos e tempo entre defecações. Análise da morfologia dos neurônios dopaminérgicos cefálicos (CEP) de vermes BY200 (com GFP acoplado ao gene dat-1) indicam neurodegeneração por: 1) redução da intensidade da fluorescência, 2) redução do número de neurônios intactos e 3) aumento do número de somas atrofiados por verme em relação ao controle. Esses efeitos não estão relacionados a efeitos da reserpina na expressão do gene dat-1. Interessantemente, os efeitos da reserpina na atividade locomotora, na morfologia dos neurônios CEP e na expressão do gene dat-1 foram revertidos após a retirada dos vermes da exposição a reserpina. Em adição, a reserpina reduziu a sobrevivência de vermes deficientes do transportador vesicular de monoaminas (TVMs, cat-1) e do transportador de DA (DAT, dat-1), mas não alterou a sobrevivência de deficientes da tirosina hidroxilase (TH, cat-2) e dos receptores dopaminérgicos (dop-1, dop-2, dop-3 e dop-4) em relação aos vermes selvagens N2. A reserpina também reduziu a sobrevivência de vermes N2 pré-expostos a DA, e ativou a via de detoxificação SKN-1 dos vermes. Alterações na imunoreatividade ao DAT e a TH no estriado de ratos tratados com reserpina e/ou AG não foram encontradas. O efeito protetor do AG nos MMVs induzidos por reserpina em ratos parece não envolver sua atividade antioxidante, antiapoptótica ou na monoaminoxidase (MAO). Como conclusão, a reserpina age no TVMs causando depleção de DA, e causa neurotoxicidade/neurodegeneração dopaminérgica devido provavelmente a um acúmulo de DA no espaço sináptico resultande de uma interferência no funcionamento do DAT. Mais estudos avaliando a ação da reserpina no DAT e o mecanismo de proteção do AG são necessários.

La schizophrénie est une maladie mentale grave qui se caractérise par un spectre hétérogène de manifestations cliniques. L’utilisation des antipsychotiques depuis la fin des années 1940 pour traiter la maladie ne permet au mieux que d’aider à contrôler certains symptômes et n’arrive pas à enrayer son décours. Ceci est particulièrement vrai pour le traitement des symptômes cognitifs (troubles attentionnels, de mémoire, et surtout troubles de la fonction exécutive) qui sont au cœur de la maladie. L’amélioration des performances cognitives des malades par les différents traitements ne peut être considérée comme un succès et il semble que ce soit un rendez-vous manqué tant les besoins thérapeutiques pour traiter ces symptômes sont essentiels dans la schizophrénie. Dans cette thèse nous avons étudié les déficits de la fonction exécutive dans un modèle hyperdopaminergique, les DAT-KO, qui sont des souris invalidées pour le gène du transporteur de la dopamine (DA). [...]. Nous avons dans un premier temps caractérisé notre modèle animal dans l’Attentional Set-Shifting Test (ASST) qui est un équivalent chez le rongeur du Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), un test permettant de mesurer chez l’Homme les performances de la fonction exécutive. Nous avons démontré que les DAT-KO présentent des performances déficitaires dans l’ASST, conformément à notre hypothèse. En utilisant des antagonistes spécifiques des récepteurs, D1 (le SCH23390) et D2 (le sulpiride) nous avons démontré que le SCH23390 améliorait les performances des souris DAT-KO dans l’ASST contrairement au sulpiride. Ce résultat nous a permis de suggérer que l’hyperdopaminergie, responsable de l’altération de la fonction exécutive des DAT-KO, aurait pour conséquence la sur-activation des récepteurs D1. Nous avons par la suite cherché à voir si l’on peut établir un lien direct entre hyperdopaminergie dans le mPFC qui est reconnu pour être la région traitant le set-shifting et le déficit comportemental. Nous avons modifié la transmission DAergique de deux façons complémentaires, soit par une induction pharmacologique avec un inhibiteur du DAT, le GBR12935, soir par une induction par optogénétique chez les souris DATcre/ChR2 exprimant la Channel Rhodopsin dans les neurones DAergiques. Avec ces deux modèles, nous avons pu montrer que l’action de la DA sur l’altération de la fonction exécutive passait par une sur-activation de la neurotransmission D1 et non D2. Néanmoins, la modulation de l’activité des neurones du PFC par la DA n’est pas uniforme. Elle module les fonctions du PFC en faisant appel à des neurones ayant un rôle spécialisé. Nous avons donc voulu essayer d’établir les mécanismes pouvant être mis en jeu pendant le set-shifting et ainsi essayer d’identifier le substrat neuronal pouvant être impliqué dans la fonction exécutive. A l’aide de deux marqueurs de l’activité neuronale, c-fos et P-ERK, nous avons pu établir que l’activité des neurones du cortex prélimbique (PrL) augmentait pendant une tâche de set-shifting. Nous avons aussi corrélé la modulation par les antipsychotiques du niveau de performance des DAT-KO dans le set-shifting avec le niveau d’activité du PrL et nous avons pu identifier le profil d’activation des deux principales populations neuronales du PFC, les neurones pyramidaux glutamatergiques et les interneurones GABAergiques. Nous avons pu relier ce profil d’activation avec la modulation comportementale des DAT-KO par les antipsychotiques mais aussi par d’autres ligands pharmacologiques actuellement à l’étude comme complément ou traitement alternatif aux antipsychotiques, le LY3979268, un agoniste mGluR2/3 et le CDPPB, un potentiateur mGluR5. L’ensemble de ces résultats nous a permis de mieux comprendre les effets de l’hyperdopaminergie sur le set-shifting mais aussi de pouvoir commencer à identifier le support neuronal de la modulation dopaminergique de la fonction exécutive. / Schizophrenia is a severe mental illness with a large spectrum of clinical manifestations. Since the introduction of antipsychotic medications in the 40’s, only modest progress has been made in the treatment of the disease. Currently used antipsychotics have only partial efficacy, controlling positive symptoms but usually failing to stop the mental decline of the patient. This lack of full-blown efficacy is particularly evident in the treatment of executive function deficits, which are now considered as core symptoms of schizophrenia. Increased dopamine (DA) neurotransmission is considered as a core neurochemical alteration in schizophrenia and all prescribed antipsychotics are dopamine-D2 receptor antagonists. In addition, major cognitive functions that are disarrayed in schizophrenia depend on proper DA regulation. However, there are no studies investigating the link between increased DA-ergic tone and executive function. The present thesis focuses on executive function deficits in a hyperdopaminergic mouse model, the genetically engineered mouse that lacks the dopamine transporter (DAT; DATKO mouse). First, we characterized our animal model in the Attentional Set-Shifting Test (ASST), which is a rodent adaptation of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, a test used to evaluate executive function in humans. DATKO mice had impaired performances in the ASST, confirming our working hypothesis. Systemic administration of the selective D1 antagonist SCH23390 ameliorated the performance of the DATKO in the ASST. In contrast, the D2 antagonist sulpiride had no effect, suggesting that the overactivation of D1 (but not D2) receptors might be involved in hyperdopaminergia-induced ASST deficits. To further investigate a possible causal link between elevated DA and ASST deficits we have induced a hyperdopaminergic state selectively in the prefrontal cortex (PFC), the region involved in executive function. This was done (i) pharmacologically, with local microinfusions of the DAT inhibitor GBR12935; (ii) optogenetically, by generating and utilising a novel transgenic tool the DATcre/ChR2 mice which express Channel-Rhodopsin selectively in DA-ergic neurons. In both constructs, PFC hyperdopaminergia resulted in ASST deficits. These, were reversed with SCH23390 but not with sulpiride, clearly establishing a role for D1 receptors in the deleterious effects of PFC hyperdopaminergia on executive function. It has been postulated that dopamine modulates PFC synaptic plasticity and associated cognitive functions through two distinct but interconnected neuronal populations: glutamatergic (Glu-) pyramidal neurons and GABA- interneurons. Immunocytochemistry experiments combining neuronal activation markers (p-ERK; c-fos) and selective labelling of Glu- versus GABA- neurons allowed to parse the role of these two populations in the ASST. A balaced Glu- versus GABA- activation was necessary for a succesful ASST performance. A dysregulated pattern of Glu- versus GABA- activation correlated with ASST deficits, leading us to speculate a putative link between cortical hyperdopaminergia and cortical Gluhypoactivation. Interestingly, glutamatergic ligands such as the mGluR2/3 agonist LY3979268 and the mGluR5 potentiator CDPPB (which are under current investigation in schizophrenia) corrected both the behavioral deficits and the altered neuronal activation pattern of hyperdopaminergic mice in the ASST. Overall, this work: (i) demonstrates for the first time a causal link between PFC hyperdopaminergia and executive deficits; (ii) proposes and validates a new model to study the cellular, molecular and synaptic mechanisms underlying executive dysfunction; (iii) suggests D1 receptor antagonism, in adjunct with current antipsychotic medications, as a novel therapeutic strategy to treat cognitive dysfunction in schizophrenia.

Dopamine (DA) governs movement, sleep, reward, and cognition. The presynaptic dopamine transporter (DAT), clears released DA, controlling DA signaling and homeostasis. Genetic DAT ablation causes hyperactivity, sleep reduction, and altered psychostimulant response. DAT surface expression is dynamic; DAT constitutively internalizes and recycles to and from the plasma membrane, and acute PKC activation stimulates DAT endocytosis. Cell line experiments demonstrated that PKC-stimulated DAT endocytosis requires Ack1 inactivation and the GTPase, Rit2. How Rit2 controls PKC-dependent DAT internalization, or whether regulated DAT endocytosis impacts behavior, is unknown. Here, I present data supporting that PKC activation stimulates Rit2/DAT dissociation, mediated by the DAT N-terminus. Further, Ack1 and Rit2 function independently to facilitate PKC-stimulated DAT internalization. Moreover, PKC-stimulated DAT endocytosis was limited to ventral striatum in ex vivo slice preparations, and required Rit2. Our lab previously demonstrated that certain DA-dependent behaviors required DAergic Rit2 in mice, however whether this was due to perturbed PKC-stimulated DAT internalization, or DAT-independent Rit2 function(s) remains untested. To address this, I turned to Drosophila and its Rit2 homolog Ric. I found that Ric and dDAT proteins interact in cell lines, and that constitutively active Ric (RicQ117L) increased dDAT function in cultured cells and ex vivo whole fly brains. However, neither DAergic Ric knockdown nor RicQ117L altered overall locomotion or sleep, suggesting that these fundamental behaviors do not require DAergic Ric. Together, these results expand our understanding of intrinsic mechanisms controlling DAT endocytosis, and their impact on behavior.

Dopamine (DA) is a modulatory neurotransmitter required for movement, learning, and reward. Several neuropsychiatric disorders exhibit DAergic dysfunction, including Parkinson’s disease (PD). The presynaptic DA transporter (DAT) constrains DAergic signaling via DA reuptake. Acute PKC activation drives DAT endocytosis, however, endogenous receptor-mediated DAT trafficking in striatal terminals remains ill-defined. Here, I present data supporting biphasic Gq-receptor-mediated DAT trafficking in striatum. Gq-receptor activation drives initial DAT insertion, which requires DA release, DAergic DRD2auto activation, and intact retromer. Subsequent DAT retrieval requires PKC and the neuronal GTPase Rit2. Furthermore, I demonstrate that the endogenous Gq-coupled metabotropic glutamate receptor, mGluR5, expressed on DAergic neurons exerts biphasic DAT regulation. DAergic mGluR5 silencing revealed that mGluR5 is required for motor learning and coordination. DAergic mGluR5 cKO motor deficits were rescued by DAT inhibition, suggesting mGluR5-mediated DAT trafficking is required for these behaviors. Apart from its requisite role in DAT trafficking, Rit2 is a PD associated risk allele. We previously demonstrated that Rit2 is required for psychostimulant response and generalized anxiety, but not basal locomotion. However, Rit2’s roles in more complex motor behaviors and PD pathology remain unknown. DAergic Rit2 silencing revealed that Rit2 is required for male motor learning and prolonged Rit2 suppression leads to progressive manifestation of PD biomarkers, coordination deficits, and decreased DAergic tone. Motor learning deficits were rescued by boosting DA availability, echoing Rit2-mediated hypodopaminergia. Together these results identify receptor-mediated DAT trafficking mechanisms in DA terminals, demonstrate that DAT surface dynamics are required for motor function, and implicate DAergic Rit2 loss in progressive PD-like phenotypes.

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Repetitive Störungen manifestieren sich als Leitsymptom in der Zwangsstörung und dem Tourette-Syndrom. Die Symptome werden als enthemmte Stereotypien eines desinhibierten Basalganglien-thalamo-kortikalen (BGTC) Regelkreises verstanden. Überdies wird als neurochemisches Korrelat ein dysregulatives Dopamin (DA)-System innerhalb dieser Kerngebiete nahegelegt, welches über ein überaktives Dopamintransporter (DAT)-System erklärt werden könnte. In der Induktion repetitiver Erkrankungen ist die Interaktion des BGTC Regelkreises und des DA-Systems dennoch unklar. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden daher anhand von zwei Pathologiemodellen (Ratte) mit unterschiedlich induzierter Dysregulation des DA-Systems (transgen versus pharmakologisch) die dysfunktionalen Einheiten im BGTC Regelkreises vergleichend untersucht. Im transgenen Modell führte die zentralnervöse DAT-Überexpression: (1) zu einer verstärkten Genexpression des vesikulären Monoamintransporter 2 (VMAT2) sowie des DA-Rezeptors 1 und DA–Rezeptors 2 (DRD1, DRD2), (2) zu einem reduzierten DA-Spiegel mit erhöhter DA-Umsatzrate und veränderten serotonergen- und GABAergen-System, und (3) zu perserverativen Verhalten. Im Gegensatz dazu zeigte die chronische Applikation mit dem D2-Agonisten Quinpirol im pharmakologischen Modell: (1) eine Reduktion des DAT, VMAT2 und DRD2, (2) eine reduzierte DA-Umsatzrate und (3) zwanghaftes Kontrollverhalten. Die Ergebnisse legen nahe, dass die unterschiedlichen klinischen Subtypen der Zwangsstörung unterschiedlichen neurobiologischen Veränderungen zugrunde liegen könnten. Ferner bietet das hier vorgestellte transgene Modell erfolgsversprechende Ansatzpunkte um als neues valides Tiermodell der repetitiven Störungen etabliert zu werden. / Repetitive disorders manifest as the cardinal symptom in obsessive-compulsive disorder and Tourette syndrome. The symptoms are understood as disinhibited stereotypies of a basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical (BGTC) circuit. Furthermore, it is suggested that a dysregulated dopamine (DA) system within this circuit is the underlying neurochemical correlate which could be explained by an overactive dopamine transporter (DAT). At this point, it is still unclear how the BGTC circuit and the DA system interact in the induction of repetitive disorders. Therefore we investigated the dysfunctional unities within the BGTC circuit by comparing two pathological rat models (transgenic versus pharmacologic) with different induced dopaminergic dysregulation. The DAT overexpressing rat model showed: (1) increased gene expression of the vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2), DA receptor D1 (DRD1) and DA receptor D2 (DRD2), (2) lower levels of DA with an increased DA metabolism and alterations in the serotonin- and GABA system, and (3) perseverative behavior. In contrast, the chronic application of the D2 receptor agonist quinpirole resulted in the pharmacologic model in: (1) lower gene expressions of the DAT, VMAT2 and DRD2, (2) reduced DA-turnover and (3) compulsive control behavior. These results suggest that different clinical subtypes of obsessive-compulsive disorder caused by different neurobiological alterations. In addition, the presented transgenic model provides the opportunity to be established as a new valid animal model of repetitive disorders.