The growing need for high-performance electrode materials in electrochemical conversion and storage applications requires further fundamental investigation on the working and degradation mechanisms of these materials. Among various functional materials, transition metal oxides are still one of the main choices due to their tunable chemical compositions and diverse crystal structures in most aqueous and organic electrolytes. The charge transfer process mainly occurs at the electrode-electrolyte interface, and controlling the electrochemical interfacial stability represents a key challenge in developing sustainable and cost-effective electrochromic materials. The present thesis focuses on classical tungsten trioxide (WO3) materials as the platform to uncover the previously unknown interrelationship between phase transformation, morphological evolution, nanoscale color heterogeneity, and performance degradation in these materials during 3,000 cyclic voltammetry cycles. Through the application of novel cell design, synchrotron/electron spectroscopic, and imaging analyses, we observe that the interface between the WO3 electrode and 0.5 M sulfuric acid electrolyte undergoes constant changes due to the tungsten oxide dissolution and redeposition. The redeposition of dissolved tungsten species provokes in situ crystal growth, which ultimately leads to phase transformation from the semicrystalline WO3 to a nanoflake-shaped, proton-trapped tungsten trioxide dihydrate (HxWO3·2H2O). The multidimensional (surface and bulk) quantification of the electronic structure with X-ray measurements reveals that the tungsten reduction caused by proton trapping is heterogeneous at the nanometric scale and is responsible for the nanoscale color heterogeneity. The Coulombic efficiency, optical modulation, apparent diffusion coefficients, and switching kinetics are gradually diminished during 3,000 cyclic voltammetry cycles, resulting from the structural and chemical changes of the WO3 electrode. We hypothesize that the high interfacial reactivity in the electrode-electrolyte interfacial region could be the universal underlying mechanism leading to undesired bulk structural changes of inorganic electrochromic materials. / M.S. / With the rapid development of human society, the research of new energy-saving materials has become a focus of attention. Among them, electrochromic devices can effectively adjust their color through a controllable electrochemical reaction and have a wide range of uses in our daily life. For example, smart windows can reduce glare and heat without blocking the natural light, thereby providing buildings and vehicles with better thermal and visual comfort. Electrochromic optical displays can lower energy consumption. Variable reflectance mirrors such as anti-glare car rear-view mirrors can ensure the safety of driving. Lastly, wearable apparel such as electrochromic lenses for spectacles and sunglasses can protect users from ultraviolet radiation. Although electrochromic materials and devices have not expanded from the niche market, the enormous potential that they hold cannot be ignored and wide-scale commercialization should be sought after. Tungsten oxides electrochromic devices have proved to utilize the full spectrum of the incident light through structure design. These devices can also be configured with solar cells as a state-of-art integrated self-powered system with satisfactory optical modulation that can be obtained without any external electrical energy input. Moreover, WO3-based devices have also been combined with electrodeposition technology to achieve fast color-switching kinetics. However, the long-term durability in the acidic electrolyte under electrochemical cycling conditions needs to be further improved, and the road of full commercialization is still unpaved. To design high-performance electrochromic materials, it is imperative to study the degradation mechanism under long-term electrochemical cycling conditions. In the present thesis, the performance degradation of the WO3 electrode in acid electrolytes involves chemical changes. Through a better understanding of the fundamental degradation process, the design of high- performance electrochromic metal oxides can be developed.

This project addresses two main subjects of moisture-cure polyurethane (PUR) wood adhesives: wood/PUR interactions and structure-property behavior emphasizing on weather durability. For these purposes, one simplified model PUR (MPUR) and three more commercially significant PURs (CPURs) with different hard segment contents were prepared. Separately, an early side project involved the synthesis of a 13C and 15N double-labeled polymeric methylenebis(phenylisocyanate) (pMDI) resin; this was used for the solid-state NMR characterization of isocyanate cure chemistry in wood bondline. MPUR and a CPUR were employed to investigate whether wood/adhesive interactions influence PUR properties. Wood interactions significantly altered PUR hard/soft domain size distribution (atomic force microscopy, AFM), thermal transition temperatures (dynamic mechanical analyses, DMA), and urethane/urea hydrogen bonds (Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, FTIR). The effects of hard segment content on properties of PUR prepolymers, and cured PURs (films and wood composites) were studied. Hard segment content largely influenced the PURs’ molecular weights, viscosity, penetration, thermal transitions, and hard segment hydrogen bonds, but only slightly altered the dry (unweathered) bondline toughness. Three accelerated weathering procedures were developed to evaluate CPUR bondline weather durability through mode-I fracture testing. Both hard segment content and weathering conditions were found to significantly influence the bondline weather durability. Among these weathering procedures, only one (VPSS) was able to effectively distinguish weather durability of PUR adhesives, and therefore it was selected for detailed structure-weather durability studies. PUR weather durability was found to correlate with its moisture sensitivity and hard segment softening temperature; both were provided by water-submersion DMA. Much attention was directed to the investigation of weather-induced PUR molecular changes. FTIR studies provided evidences of post-cure, hydrolytic degradation, and variation of urethane/urea hydrogen bonds. DMA presented weathering effects on PUR thermal properties. Special efforts have been made to correlate these analytical results with PUR weather durability. A 13C and 15N double-labeled pMDI resin was synthesized and used for solid-state NMR characterization of isocyanate cure chemistry in wood bondline, particularly to detect the evidence of urethane formation. Rotational echo double resonance (REDOR) NMR clearly revealed the formation of urethane linkages, but largely overestimated their content. / Ph. D.

The accuracy of computer-based ground vehicle durability and ride quality simulations depends on accurate representation of road surface topology as an excitation to vehicle dynamics simulation software, since most of the excitation input to a vehicle as it traverses terrain is provided by the surface topology. It is not computationally efficient to utilise physically measured terrain topology for these simulations since extremely large data sets would be required to represent terrain of all desired types. Moreover, performing repeated simulations on the same set of measured data would not provide a random character typical of real world usage. There exist several methods of synthesising terrain data through the use of stochastic or mathematical models in order to capture such physical properties of measured terrain as roughness, bank angle and grade. In first part of this work, the autoregressive model and the Markov chain model have been applied to generate synthetic two-dimensional terrain profiles. The synthesised terrain profiles generated are expected to capture the statistical properties of the measured data. A methodology is then proposed; to assess the performance of these models of terrain in capturing the statistical properties of the measured terrain. This is done through the application of several statistical property tests to the measured and synthesized terrain profiles. The second part of this work describes the procedure that has been followed to assess the performance of these models in capturing the vehicle component fatigue-inducing characteristics of the measured terrain, by predicting suspension component fatigue life based on the loading conditions obtained from the measured terrain and the corresponding synthesized terrain. The terrain model assessment methodology presented in this work can be applied to any model of terrain, serving to identify which terrain models are suited to which type of terrain. / Master of Science

The Wisconsin Department of Transportation (WisDOT) uses approximately 11,000,000 tons of aggregate per year for transportation projects. Being able to select durable aggregates for use in transportation projects is of considerable importance, if the aggregate deteriorates then the constructed facility requires premature repair, rehabilitation or replacement. Realizing the importance and also that deficiencies in the current WisDOT testing protocol may exist, it has been concluded that the durability-testing program for Wisconsin aggregates needs to be updated. For example, WisDOT is currently using the Sodium Sulfate Soundness Test (ASTM C 88) to measure durability, a test that was put in place in 1960. The ability of this test to predict durability performance and simulate field conditions is questionable and it has also been criticized for its lack of precision. It should also be noted that the use of recycled and reclaimed aggregates has increased in recent years and not all typical durability tests can be used for testing these aggregates. The Sulfate Test in particular cannot be used for testing Recycled Concrete Aggregates (RCA) because the chemical reaction produces erroneous and misleading results. This project has identified recent advances in the understanding and testing of aggregate durability. An in depth literature review has been conducted and from the compiled information a laboratory testing program was developed. Selection of the tests was based upon the tests' precision, efficiency, and predictive capabilities. In the laboratory-testing phase of this project the proposed durability tests along with current WisDOT durability tests were used to evaluate the full range of Wisconsin aggregates. From the test results it was found that the WisDOT aggregate testing protocol could be reduced substantially by eliminating many of the testing requirements for aggregates that have a vacuum saturated absorption of less than 2%. Also, the addition of several tests was ruled out due to their lack of correlation with field performance records. The Micro-Deval abrasion test is recommended for inclusion in WisDOT testing protocol as a test to measure the abrasion resistance of aggregate while the L.A. Abrasion test is better suited as a measure of aggregate strength. Additional conclusions were made based on the durability testing conducted and an overall testing protocol has been developed and is recommended for implementation by WisDOT. / Master of Science

Pallet durability is a key characteristic with significant impact on a company's supply chain. Physical durability is defined as the number of trips that the pallet will accomplish before requiring repairs. Numerous studies have focused on understanding how durability is affected by different pallet components and warehouse environment characteristics. The VPI FasTrack is a testing sequence created to predict the performance of a pallet in a warehouse environment through different handling modes. However, this simulation has not been updated since its creation in 1993; therefore, a revision is needed to make it more closely reflect the behavior of a pallet in terms of durability. The objective of the current research was to investigate the ability of the FasTrack procedure to replicate the damages caused by material handling and storage systems in modern warehouses. This investigation was conducted through visual inspections of the damages seen on pallets used in the field, and pallets tested with FasTrack. The results of this study show the differences between the simulation-tested pallets and those from the field. The FasTrack simulation focuses heavily on top lead deckboard and stringer damage. The occurrence of damage modes such as splits and missing wood, were identified for these components. It was found that most of the damages from this simulation are created due to forklift handling. Because of substantial forklift handling damages, an experimental design was developed to investigate the effects of entry speed, payload, forklift type, and pallet design on the stresses exerted on a pallet, measured in terms of peak acceleration. The factors with the greatest effect on forklift peak acceleration and pallet peak acceleration were identified. The research shows that the acceleration in the pallet is approximately 4.4 times greater than the acceleration recorded in the forklift; however, the model of pallet acceleration based on forklift acceleration as a predictor shows poor performance. Different modifications to FasTrack are proposed according to the findings of this research. It is advised that they continue the FasTrack procedure past the point of repairable damage in a pallet, which is the usual practice when pallets are handled in the field. Further investigation of steps such as the flow rack and the stack storage are proposed, due to their low damage output during the simulation. The experimental design also showed that different damage severity levels from the FasTrack simulation are possible with variations in top load and entry speed. These changes could improve the ability of the VPI FasTrack to replicate the damages that pallets experience in the field. / Master of Science / Pallet durability refers to the number of uses that can be expected from a pallet before it needs to be repaired. Durability is an important performance characteristic, with a direct effect on the supply chain for any company. By further understanding how the warehouse environment and material handling systems affect pallet durability, companies can significantly reduce costs and improve their supply chain operations. The FasTrack procedure was created to satisfy the need for an effective durability simulation procedure. Created in 1993, FasTrack features different handling modes and interactions with handling equipment to reproduce the damages that a pallet could suffer in a real warehouse environment. However, warehouse environments have changed since the creation of FasTrack, which makes it important to assess the performance of this procedure in predicting pallet durability. The goal of this research was to investigate the ability of the FasTrack procedure to replicate the damages caused by material handling and storage systems in modern warehouses. This study was conducted through visual inspection of damaged locations, damage types, and damage severity levels for pallets used in the field and for pallets tested with FasTrack. The results obtained show differences between FasTrack and the field. The damage distribution in FasTrack for components of the pallet such as stringers and top lead deckboard is significantly higher than that measured in the field. The interaction of the pallet with the forklift could explain common damage modes, such as splits and missing wood, which were identified as the most damaged components in the pallets. An experimental design was developed to investigate the effects of entry speed, top load, forklift type, and pallet design on the stresses produced during interactions between forklifts and pallets. This interaction was measured in terms of horizontal shock impact acceleration. The most influential factors for forklift and pallet peak accelerations were identified with this study. An opportunity to predict pallet acceleration with forklift acceleration was identified, which could allow further investigation of the FasTrack simulation compared to the field. The results of the investigation show that FasTrack does not accurately reproduce the damages that pallets experience in the field. To improve the performance of the VPI FasTrack, the research proposes a revision of the steps during which damage output is low, such as the flow rack and the stack storage. The experimental design identified forklift entry speed and top load on the pallet as potential variables that could be customized in FasTrack, reflecting different severity levels based on a customer's unique environment characteristics. These changes could improve the correlation of the damages seen from the FasTrack simulation and the field, which would grant the industry a more reliable prediction of pallet durability.

The primary objective of this research was to examine the strength degradation of Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) bars at high temperature and alkalinity and determine if an Arrhenius type relationship can be used as a means of projecting life. The work done includes a thorough literature review, experiments and development of strength prediction models. The experimental work involves exposure of GFRP bars incased in cement mortar to lime-water solution at 30, 45 and 57°C. Overall 100 specimens were included in the experimental program. The tensile strength and modulus of elasticity retention after 180 days of exposure at 57°C was 57% and 82% respectively. The secondary objective was to determine the moisture absorption properties of GFRP bars. The moisture absorption data available is till 80 days from the immersion of the specimens in the tank. The collected data was used in the development of strength retention models. Two strength prediction models, Time Shift Method and Fickian Model for moisture absorption are formulated. Using the Fickian Model, strength is predicted for GFRP bars, if used in bridge decks in Roanoke, Virginia. The strength loss predicted was 45% after 50 years of exposure in real life environment. A linear relationship was observed when the moisture content and strength retention were plotted. The study estimates a strength loss higher than the ACI-440H recommended environmental degradation factor of 0.7 to calculate the design ultimate tensile strength. / Master of Science

Doctor of Philosophy / Civil Engineering / Kyle Riding / Air voids are purposefully entrained in concrete to provide freeze-thaw durability of prestressed concrete railroad ties. Durability assurance requires consistent provision of an air void system comprised of small, well-distributed bubbles in sufficient quantity for durability and a quality control method for testing tie freeze-thaw durability. Manufacturing processes at three concrete manufacturing plants were investigated in order to determine the effects of process variability on resulting concrete air void system variability. Variation in the concrete air void system and other rheological properties occurred as results of the manufacturing process and vibration. Freezing and thawing durability testing of prestressed concrete ties is currently performed by applying ASTM C666 on 3 x 4 x 11 to 16 in. specimens cut from the shoulders of concrete ties. However, excising these specimens from prestressed concrete could lead to stress changes in the sample and cracking, potentially causing false interpretations of results. Therefore, testing was undertaken to understand the effects of prestressing and sample extraction on freeze-thaw durability measured by ASTM C666. In order to assess the effects of sampling and testing procedures on freeze-thaw quality control testing results of prestressed concrete railroad ties, full ties, half ties, and 3 x 4 x 11 in. excised samples were tested. Freeze-thaw testing included determination of the optimal method to measure freeze-thaw deterioration in large sections, the effects of saw-cutting, and the presence of reinforcement. Results indicated that the Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity accurately represented deterioration in large sections. The presence of reinforcement in excised samples led to faster deterioration compared to cast ASTM C666 samples, while saw-cutting without reinforcement did not significantly affect freeze-thaw durability.

Orientador: Gladis Camarini / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Civil, Arquitetura e Urbanismo / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-19T14:19:57Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Pereira_ValdirMoraes_M.pdf: 1471160 bytes, checksum: 1317b5951c4368324373d0e6c2a488ba (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011 / Resumo: Os mecanismos de transporte no interior do concreto são os principais responsáveis pela sua deterioração. Desta maneira, a permeabilidade deste material tem vital importância e influência na sua durabilidade, ou seja, influenciando na principal característica que determina a vida útil para o qual foi projetado. É a permeabilidade que controla a taxa de ingresso e movimentação de agentes deletérios que podem comprometer física e quimicamente a estrutura interna deste material, que pode ocasionar na deterioração da sua macro e microestrutura. Por isso, diversas metodologias têm sido empregadas para mensurar e avaliar essa propriedade do concreto; no entanto, grandes disparidades têm sido encontradas. Assim, este trabalho visa avaliar permeabilidade ao ar de concretos produzidos com cimento Portland de alto-forno (CP III - 40). O traço empregado nas séries de concreto produzidas foi nas proporções de cimento: areia: brita de 1:2:3. Foram empregadas três relações água/cimento (0,42 - 0,46 e 0,50), e os concretos submetidos à dois tipos diferentes de cura (imersa e ambiente) e ensaiados aos 7 dias, 28 dias e 350 dias. A metodologia empregada para a determinação da permeabilidade ao ar do concreto foi a metodologia proposta por Thenoz. Para complementar os resultados de permeabilidade ao ar foram realizados também ensaios para determinação do índice de vazios e absorção de água por capilaridade. Os resultados indicaram que os concretos com maiores relações água/cimento têm maiores valores de índice de vazios e apresentaram os maiores valores de absorção de água por capilaridade e permeabilidade ao ar. A cura imersa demonstrou ser mais eficaz do que a cura ambiente, pois os concretos submetidos a este tipo de cura foram os que obtiveram os menores valores de índice de vazios, absorção de água por capilaridade e permeabilidade ao ar. A idade de hidratação também influenciou nos resultados, onde idades mais avançadas também demonstraram menores valores de índice de vazios, absorção de água por capilaridade e permeabilidade ao ar. A análise da metodologia proposta por Thenoz para a mensuração da permeabilidade ao ar do concreto indicou que, de acordo com o número Mach, não há descompressibilidade do ar durante o ensaio. De acordo com o número Reynolds do escoamento, é possível afirmar que o escoamento durante o ensaio de permeabilidade ao ar proposto pela metodologia Thenoz ocorre sob regime laminar. De acordo com os resultados obtidos na análise fluido-dinâmica do escoamento, a metodologia Thenoz, para a mensuração da permeabilidade ao ar do concreto, mostrou-se eficaz para a determinação dessa propriedade do concreto / Abstract: Transport mechanisms in cement-based composites are primarily responsible for their deterioration. Thus, the permeability of cement-based materials is vital in the durability of concrete, which is the main characteristic that determines the life for which they were designed. It is the permeability, which controls the rate of entry and movement of deleterious agents that can compromise physically and chemically the internal structure of these materials, causing a deterioration of its microstructure. Several methods have been employed to measure and assess the permeability of concrete, but major differences have been found. Thus, this work is to assess the air permeability of concrete produced with Portland cement, blast furnace (CP III - 40). The dash employee in the series of concrete was produced in the proportions of cement: sand: crushed of 1:2:3. Relations have been employed three water / cement (0.42 - 0.46 and 0.50), and the concrete submitted to two different types of healing (submerged and environment) and tested at 7 days, 28 days and 350 days. The methodology used to determine the permeability of concrete was to air the methodology proposed by Thenoz. To complement the results of the air permeability were also conducted tests to determine the rate of empty and absorption of water by capillary. The results indicated that the concrete relations with major water / cement have highest rate of empty and had the highest absorption of water by capillary permeability and the air. The cure immersed proved to be more effective than cure environment, because the concrete subjected to this type of cure were those who received the lowest values of voids content, absorption of water by capillary permeability and the air. The age of hydration also influenced the results, where elderly also showed lower values of voids content, absorption of water by capillary permeability and the air. The analysis of the methodology proposed by Thenoz for the measurement of the air permeability of the concrete indicated that, according to the Mach number, there is incompressibility air during the test. In accordance with the Reynolds number of outlets, it can be said that the disposal during the testing of the air permeability methodology proposed by the Thenoz occur under laminar regime. The assessment of Thenoz methodology to measure the air permeability of concrete shows that this is an effective concrete test, according to fluid-dynamics analyzes evaluate / Mestrado / Arquitetura e Construção / Mestre em Engenharia Civil

Den ökade efterfrågan på pellets har fört med sig högre krav på pelletkvalité och detta har lett till att forskningen i Sverige har övergått från att studera möjliga bränslen till att studera pelletkvalité, ofta med fokus på mekanisk hållfasthet. För att pröva den mekaniska hållfastheten så finns olika standardmetoder såsom tumling enligt ISO 17831-1:2015, som är europeisk standard, och lignotest. Standardmetoderna kräver en större mängd pellets och kan inte användas för att pröva pellets från en singelpelletpress, vilket är ett mycket vanligt sätt att producera nya pelletsammansättningar. En singelpelletpress tillverkar en pellet åt gången och för att prediktera mekaniska hållfastheten finns många olika metoder, till exempel dropp- och hårdhetstest. Det är idag oklart hur väl metoderna för att pröva pellets från en singelpelletpress predikterar mekaniska hållfastheten och det finns en begränsad mängd forskning som undersöker korrelationen med standardmetoderna. Äldre forskning visar på en positiv linjär korrelation medan nyare forskning visar att korrelationen även beror på pelletens sammansättning. Det finns också studier som använder nya sätt att pröva enstaka pellets. En ny studie tumlar pellets tillsammans med plastpellets, men inga jämförelser med andra metoder utförs. En annan studie prövade tumling samt lignotest för en pellet åt gången och jämförde med tumling enligt ISO 17831-1:2015. Den studien visade ett R2 på 0.83 respektive 0.94 för pellets med en mekanisk hållfasthet över 90%.  En metod som korrelerar med standardmetoderna skulle mycket tydligare indikera hur en pellet från en singelpelletpress skulle prestera i större produktionsskala. Om metoden även utnyttjar redan tillgänglig teknik finns möjligheten för en bred användning, likt en standardmetod, som skulle underlätta jämförelser mellan olika studier och samarbeten mellan forskningsinstitut.  I detta arbete undersöks validiteten av att tumla enstaka pellets tillsammans med plastpellets. Plast- och singelpelletsmixen som innehöll 3, 10 och 20 pellets, resterande del (upp till 500g ±10g) plastpellets, tumlades för 6 olika sorters pellets. Standardavvikelse, relativ standardavvikelse samt medelvärdet av mekaniska hållfastheten bestämdes och den linjära regressionen med tumling enligt ISO 17831-1:2015 undersöktes. För samma pelletsorter genomfördes dropptest och hårdhetstest där den linjära regressionen med tumling enligt ISO 17831-1:2015 även gjordes för hårdhetstestet. Resultaten visar att tumling med plast- och singelpelletmix fungerar som alternativ metod till ISO 17831-1:2015 för pellets med en mekanisk hållfasthet över 92,45%, där mycket tillförlitligt resultat fås för 3 eller fler tumlade pellets över 96,62% mekanisk hållfasthet där 8 av 9 uppmätta standardavvikelser var under 1 %. För hela det prövade kvalitetsintervallet visades en korrelation (R2) med standardmetoden på 0,88-0,98 och ett R2 nära 1 för pellets med en mekanisk hållfasthet över 95 %. Dropptestet gav ingen information om pelletens mekaniska hållfasthet och bedömdes inte som en lämplig metod. Hårdhetstestet visade en hög relativ standardavvikelse mellan 19-40 % och en korrelation (R2) med standardmetoden på 0,78. Tumling med plast- och singelpelletmix hade både lägre standardavvikelse och högre korrelation med standardmetoden som visar att det är en bättre metod för att prediktera mekaniska hållfastheten för enstaka pellets än hårdhetstest. / The increased demand of pellets has led to higher demand on pellet quality causing a shift in Swedish research from studying possible fuels to studying pellet quality, often with a focus on mechanical durability. To test the mechanical durability there are various standard methods such as tumbling according to ISO 17831-1:2015, which is the European standard, and lignotest. The standard methods require a large amount of pellets and can´t be used to test pellets from a single-pellets press, a common way to produce new pellet compositions. A single-pellet press produces one pellet at a time and to predict the mechanical durability there are different methods, such as drop and hardness tests. Today it´s unclear how well the methods for testing pellets from a single-pellets press predicts the mechanical durability and there are a limited amount of research that examines the correlation with the standard methods. Earlier research shows a positive linear correlation while a recent publish study showed that the correlation also depends on the composition of the pellet. However, also new ways to test individual pellets has recently bin published, where single pellets were tumbled together with plastic pellets, but no comparisons with other methods were made. Another study tried tumbling and lignotest for one pellet at a time and compared with ISO 17831-1:2015. The study showed an R2 of 0,83 and 0,94 respectively for pellets with a mechanical durability above 90% A method that correlates with the standard methods would indicate how a pellet from a single-pellet press would preform on a larger production scale. If the method also uses already known technology there is the possibility of a broad use, similar to a standard method, wich would facilitate comparisons between different studies and collaborations between research institutes.   In this study, the validity of tumbling individual pellets together with plastic pellets is investigated. The plastic and single-pellet mix containing 3, 10 and 20 pellets, the remaining part (up to 500 ±10g) plastic pellets, was tumbled with 6 different types of pellets. Standard deviation, relative standard deviation and the mean value of the mechanical durability were determined and the linear regression with tumbling according to ISO 17831-1:2015 was examined. For the same pellet varieties, drop and hardness tests where preformed, where the linear regression with ISO 17831-1:2015 was also examined for the hardness test.   The results show that tumbling with plastic and single-pellet mix works as an alternative method to ISO 17831-1:2015 for pellets with a mechanical durability above 92,45 %, where very reliable results was obtained for 3 or more tumbled pellets above 96.62 % mechanical durability where 8 out of 9 standard deviations measured below 1%. For the entire tested quality range, a correlation (R2) was shown with ISO 17831-1:2015 of 0.88-0.98 and an R2 close to 1 for pellets with a mechanical durability over 95 %. The drop test did not provide any information on the mechanical durability of the pellet and was not considered an appropriate method. The hardness test showed a high relative standard deviation between 19-40 % and a correlation (R2) with ISO 17831-1:2015 of 0.78. Tumbling plastic and single-pellet mix had both lower standard deviation and higher correlation with the standard method ISO 17831-1:2015 which shows that it is the superior method for predicting the mechanical durability of individual pellets over hardness test.

Electrochromic thin films can effectively regulate the visible and infrared light passing through a window, demonstrating great potential to save energy and offer a comfortable indoor environment in buildings. However, long-term durability is a big issue and the physics behind this is far from clear. This dissertation work concerns two important parts of an electrochromic window: the anodic and cathodic layers. In particular, work focusing on the anodic side develop a new Ni oxide based layers and uncover degradation dynamics in Ni oxide thin films; and work focusing on the cathodic side addresses materials rejuvenation with the aim to eliminate degradation. In the first part of this dissertation work, iridium oxide is found to be compatible with acids, bases and Li+-containing electrolytes, and an anodic layer with very superior long-term durability was developed by incorporating of small amount (7.6 at. %) of Ir into Ni oxide. This film demonstrated sustained cycle-dependent growth of charge density and electrochromic modulation even after 10,000 CV cycles. The (111) and (100) crystal facets in Ni oxide are found to possess different abilities to absorb cation and/or anion, which yields different degrees of coloration and this is very significant for the electrochromic properties. The degradation of charge capacity in Ni oxide has an inevitable rapid decay in the first hundreds of cycles, subsequently combined with a more gradual decay, which is independent of applied potential and film composition. The consistent phenomenon can be very well modeled by power-law or stretched exponential decay; however the two models are indistinguishable in the current stage. Interestingly, in both models, the power-law exponent is 0.2 ≤ p ≤ 0.8, with most of the values around 0.5, in line with normal or anomalous diffusion models. The second part of dissertation work deals with cathodic WO3 and TiO2. WO3 suffers from ion trapping induced degradation of charge capacity and optical modulation upon electrochemical cycling. This speculation is strongly supported by direct evidence from Time-of-Flight Elastic Recoil Detection Analysis (ToF-ERDA). Most importantly, this ion trapping induced degradation can be eliminated by a galvanostatic de-trapping process. Significant ion-trapping takes place when x exceeds ~0.65 in LixWO3. The trapped ions are stable in the host structure, meaning that the ions cannot de-trap without external stimuli. The similar work done on TiO2 significantly complements and extends the work on the recuperation of WO3; the difference is that the trapped ions in host TiO2 seem to be less stable compared with the trapped ions in WO3.     Overall, this dissertation presents a refined conceptual framework for developing superior electrochromic windows in energy efficient buildings.