The aim of this thesis is to look closer at the phenomena Snapchat dysmorphia and the underlying aspects of what it involves. I have done this by using Karen Barads concept of intra-action, agency and discourse together with glitch theory. Through a materialistic influenced discourse analysis of several videos of young people discussing the phenomena I have seen how discourses on femininity play a crucial part in the making and taking of selfies. I have found that young women taking lots of selfies do this as a part of a selfie making practice that is a part of a selfie culture. By deconstructing the phenomena and what parts that play a part in it I could see what the underlying features was for example discourses on femininity and ideals but also the normalization of plastic surgery and image editing on social media.

Over the past decade, the study of male body image has increased considerably and substantial levels of body discontent among males have been reported. Accompanying this dissatisfaction is a rise in the documentation of the Drive for Muscularity (DFM), or the desire for increased lean muscle mass, in men. The current study had three objectives. The first was to identify theoretical variables associated with the DFM. The second was to examine body image evaluation and investment in relation to the DFM. The third was to explore the DFM and psychological well-being. Two-hundred fourteen men completed the study and multiple regressions were carried out to examine the various relations. Awareness and internalization of the male body ideal and universalistic social comparison accounted for 35% of the variance in the DFM. Body image investment, but not evaluation, accounted for 26% of the variance in the DFM. Regarding psychological well-being, the DFM accounted for an additional 23% of the variance in muscle pathology after controlling for levels of depression and self-esteem. Other notable findings included mens self-reported intentions to use potentially unhealthy body change strategies to increase size and musculature in the future, and statistically significant associations between the DFM and self-esteem, social physique anxiety, and general worry. These results contribute to the growing literature on male body image and the implications for clinical practice with men presenting with body dissatisfaction are discussed.

This study examined relationships among self-esteem, media internalization, sexual orientation, and ethnicity in predicting drive for muscularity in a diverse group of men (N = 217) who work out in gyms. Investigations examined media internalization and sexual orientation as moderators of the relationship between self-esteem and drive for muscularity. Additional analyses examined media internalization as a moderator of the relationships between a) sexual orientation and drive for muscularity and b) ethnicity and drive for muscularity. Standardized questionnaires were utilized to assess drive for muscularity, media internalization, self-esteem, sexual orientation, and ethnicity. While lower self-esteem predicted greater drive for muscularity, neither media internalization nor sexual orientation were significant moderators of this relationship. However, media internalization mediated the relationships between sexual orientation and drive for muscularity and between ethnicity and drive for muscularity. Findings suggest that the internalization of ideal muscularized images explain demographic differences in the drive to be more muscular.

Män har under lång tid inte ansetts kunna lida av ätstörningar eller kroppsuppfattningsstörningar då forskning negligerat dem. Detta har lett till att det råder brist på kunskaper om ätstörningar och kroppsuppfattningsstörningar bland män. En av de vanligaste kroppsuppfattningsstörningar bland män har visat sig vara muskeldysmorfi. Det finns begränsade kunskaper kring det och syftet med denna studie har varit att få en ökad kunskap om och beskriva vad det är samt hur det kan påverka de män som lider av problematiken. Studien är en litteraturstudie med en kvalitativ forskningsansats där både artiklar och böcker använts som underlag. Resultatet visade att muskeldysmorfi är en störning där personen blir besatt kring den egna kroppens muskulatur och som främst drabbar unga män som bodybuildar. Man vet ännu inte huruvida den ska klassas som ätstörning, dysmorfofobi eller tvångssyndrom då forskning saknas och den anses ha samband med alla dessa. Orsaker till utvecklande av muskeldysmorfi anses vara en kombination av samhällets och medias påverkan och genetiska och psykologiska faktorer. För behandling anses i dagsläget kognitiv beteendeterapi vara det mest verksamma. Konsekvenser av muskeldysmorfi kan vara skamkänslor över den egna kroppen och tvångsbeteenden och tvångstankar. Intima - och vänskapsrelationer samt den egna ekonomin och arbetslivet kan påverkas negativt och i en del fall kan muskeldysmorfi det leda till att personer börjar använda anabola steroider eller andra farliga preparat för att kunna öka i muskelmassa.

Over the past decade, the study of male body image has increased considerably and substantial levels of body discontent among males have been reported. Accompanying this dissatisfaction is a rise in the documentation of the Drive for Muscularity (DFM), or the desire for increased lean muscle mass, in men. The current study had three objectives. The first was to identify theoretical variables associated with the DFM. The second was to examine body image evaluation and investment in relation to the DFM. The third was to explore the DFM and psychological well-being. Two-hundred fourteen men completed the study and multiple regressions were carried out to examine the various relations. Awareness and internalization of the male body ideal and universalistic social comparison accounted for 35% of the variance in the DFM. Body image investment, but not evaluation, accounted for 26% of the variance in the DFM. Regarding psychological well-being, the DFM accounted for an additional 23% of the variance in muscle pathology after controlling for levels of depression and self-esteem. Other notable findings included mens self-reported intentions to use potentially unhealthy body change strategies to increase size and musculature in the future, and statistically significant associations between the DFM and self-esteem, social physique anxiety, and general worry. These results contribute to the growing literature on male body image and the implications for clinical practice with men presenting with body dissatisfaction are discussed.

Muscle dysmorphia is a relatively new psychological disorder primarily affecting males who engage in weightlifting or bodybuilding. Individuals with this disorder are obsessed with the idea that their body is not sufficiently lean or muscular when compared to others and engage in several, risky behaviors (i.e., frequent exercise sessions, anabolic steroid use, structured diets) to increase muscularity. As obtaining and maintaining a muscular physique is so important to his or her self-worth, an individual may have little insight to how their behaviors are affecting their social and occupational lives and are reluctant to seek out psychological treatment. The purpose of this study was to assess obligation to exercise, motivation and reason to exercise, athletic identity, and behaviors of muscle dysmorphia and examine their relationship to insight and recognition of criteria for muscle dysmorphia through correlation and regression tests. Participants (N = 85) completed a series of questionnaires to assess the independent variables and were then administered two questionnaires designed for the study to assess insight to any criteria participants might be experiencing and recognition of criteria in a case vignette also designed for the study. Analyses of results showed that participants with a higher athletic identity and more behaviors of muscle dysmorphia had a higher level of insight than participants with low athletic identity and fewer behaviors of muscle dysmorphia; on the other hand, individuals with more behaviors of muscle dysmorphia had a lower recognition of criteria of muscle dysmorphia than those with fewer behaviors. These findings support the notion that individuals participating in athletics and exercises to enhance muscularity have varying levels of insight to their preoccupation with improving their body shape.

The current study examined the relations among internalization of sociocultural attitudes towards appearance, magical thinking, muscle dysmorphia, and eating disorder symptoms in models of obligatory exercise for males and females. The results indicated that several different developmental trajectories exist that vary from person to person. Several of the models proposed were supported or partially supported. The first model demonstrated mediation and moderation; at low levels of magical thinking, eating disorder attitudes and behaviors fully mediated the relation between internalization of societal standards of appearance and obligatory exercise. The second model was supported for the female sample, and indicated that obligatory exercise partially mediated the relation between internalization of societal standards of appearance and eating disorder attitudes and behaviors. The second model assessing eating disorder attitudes and behaviors for the male sample was not supported. A third model evaluated a mediational effect of muscle dysmorphia, but was not evident. However, when magical thinking was high, muscle dysmorphia significantly predicted obligatory exercise. The fourth model evaluated obligatory exercise as a mediator of the relation between internalization of societal standards of appearance and muscle dysmorphia, and partial mediation was demonstrated for the males. The fourth model was not supported for the females; instead, it appears that both internalization of societal standards of appearance and obligatory exercise contribute to muscle dysmorphia. Collectively, the results of this study support the use of a transdiagnostic perspective when designing intervention and treatment programs for individuals who may suffer from eating disorders, obligatory exercise and/or muscle dysmorphia.

Given the centrality of body dissatisfaction in the manifestation of health risk behaviors (e.g., eating disorders, muscle dysmorphia) and psychological distress in men, the ability to measure it accurately is essential. Across two studies, the psychometric properties and factor structure of a new measure of male body satisfaction were established. The Body Parts Satisfaction Scale for Men (BPSS-M) was found to have three scores: full body muscularity and leanness (18 items), upper body (12 items), and legs (4 items). All three scores were internally and temporally reliable, and support was found for the convergent, discriminant, and concurrent validity of the scores. The BPSS-M represents an advance in the measurement of male body image, providing researchers and clinicians with a versatile and valid way to assess this important construct.

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