Microbiological water quality monitoring of bathing waters does not account for faecal bacteria in sediments. Intertidal deposits are a significant reservoir of faecal bacteria and this indicates there is a risk to human health through direct contact with the sediment, or through the resuspension of bacteria to the water column. This project investigated factors influencing the relative abundance of faecal indicator organisms (FIOs) in intertidal estuarine sediments. The effects of physical, biogeochemical and biological sediment characteristics, environmental variables and native microbial communities were explored through field campaigns on the Ythan and Eden estuaries, Scotland. The contributory role of sediments to adverse water quality was investigated by combining FIO abundance and measurements of sediment stability. The importance of strain and sediment characteristics in the adhesion of E. coli to suspended sediments was also examined using laboratory experiments. E. coli concentrations up to 5.9 log₁₀ CFU 100 g dry wt⁻¹ were observed, confirming that intertidal sediments are an important reservoir of faecal bacteria. The variability of E. coli abundance in estuarine sediments was successfully explained with multiple stepwise linear regression (Adjusted R² up to 87.4) using easily-obtainable measurements of sediment characteristics and environmental variables, with variability most heavily influenced by salinity and particle size gradients. Native microbial community population metrics and community constituent composition correlated with environmental gradients, but did not influence FIO abundance. The amount of E. coli adhering to suspended sediments ranged from 0.02 to 0.74 log₁₀ CFU ml⁻¹, and was dependant on strain characteristics and sediment type rather than zeta potential, with higher cell-particle adhesion at 2 and 3.5 PSU than 0 and 5 PSU. Monitoring of sediment characteristics will lead to more informed bathing water quality advisories to protect public health. Future research should focus on applying the findings here to the modelling of bacterial fate and transport on a catchment scale.

One of the major constraints limiting the efficiency of sheep production is the control of gastrointestinal nematode parasites. Parasite control by strategic use of anthelmintics is threatened by the emergence of nematode populations that are resistant to the drugs available. It is therefore increasingly apparent that steps toward maintaining sustainable productivity in the growing face of anthelmintic resistance (AR) is required by farmers. To facilitate the uptake of sustainable approaches to parasite management, a comprehensive understanding of the various factors that may influence farmers’ decision-making processes is required. In order to establish which factors are influential, and determine their impact on farmers’ roundworm control behaviours, both qualitative and quantitative research methods were used including focus groups as well as attitudinal and behavioural questionnaires. A retrospective analysis was initially conducted of historical surveys designed to identify farm specific characteristics and parasite management practices including anthelmintic usage. The objectives of the analysis were to identify factors associated with uptake of best practice advice including farm characteristics and information sourcing. In addition, the implementation of sustainable roundworm control practices was investigated using two surveys conducted in 2000 and 2010. Logistic regression models were applied for univariable and multivariable analysis of dependent and independent variables. The next step was to conduct a series of focus groups in different geographic regions of Scotland. The main purposes were to explore sheep farmers’ attitudes towards different aspects of roundworm management, as well as to identify potential motivators and barriers to uptake of sustainable parasite control practices. The findings aided in the development of an attitudinal questionnaire used to canvass opinions representative on a national level. The concluding study involved a telephone survey of 400 Scottish sheep farmers, designed to elicit attitudes regarding roundworm control, AR and sustainable roundworm control practices. A quantitative statistical analysis technique (Structural Equation Modelling) was then used to test the relationships between socio-psychological factors and the uptake of sustainable roundworm control practices. The analysis of historical questionnaire data demonstrated evidence of a shift towards the use of practices to reduce the rate of AR development, most notably a decline in the practice of ‘dose and move’ as well as an overall reduction in treatment frequency. Statistical analysis identified significant associations between farm characteristics and specific treatment strategies. For example, larger farms were more likely to adopt a set treatment regimen (P=0.036), compared with smaller farms, which were more likely to treat based on clinical signs of infection (P=0.021). Sourcing of roundworm control information primarily from veterinarians was most associated with treatment timings with no parallels between time points. From the qualitative focus group studies conducted we identified four overarching themes impacting on sheep producers’ attitudes to roundworm control and best practice advice. These themes comprised: a lack of perceived need to change, the complexity of advice, the ease of implementation of recommended practices and the effectiveness of extension approaches. Additionally, the most important and implementable guidelines identified by sheep farmers were: ‘working out a roundworm control strategy with an advisor’ and ‘administering anthelmintics effectively’ with regard to correct drenching practice i.e. appropriate dosing, administration and drug storage procedures. These findings exhibited similarities with veterinarians’ rankings with also, ‘testing for AR’, ‘preserving susceptible parasites’ and ‘reducing dependence on anthelmintics’ receiving the lowest rankings for importance and implementability. The quantitative analysis from the attitudinal/behavioural questionnaire identified eleven factors with significant influences on the adoption of sustainable roundworm control practices. The key influences on overall adoption were farmers’ baseline understanding about roundworm control and self-reported confirmation of anthelmintic resistance in their flock. Additional positive influences included, positive attitudes to veterinary services, enterprise type and perceived risk of AR. Factors that were shown to have the greatest relative effects on individual parasite control practices included; the perceived resource requirements for implementing a quarantine strategy, farmers’ AR suspicions for instigating AR testing and the confirmation of AR for adopting faecal egg count monitoring. The findings have highlighted several factors which can influence sheep farmers’ decisions to reject or adopt recommended roundworm control practices. It is evident that the perceived complexity, lack of need and practicality of the current recommendations necessitates changes to how extension is designed and disseminated to farmers. The findings also suggest that improving farmers’ acceptance and uptake of diagnostic testing and improving underlying knowledge and awareness about nematode control is a significant target to influencing adoption of best practice behaviours. The importance of veterinarians as highly-trusted information resources validates the need for further engagement with veterinarians concerning sustainable parasite control approaches, to facilitate collaboration with farmers. The need for interaction between farmers and their advisors is key to resolving the issues raised to enable the necessary explanation, justification and execution of recommended practices to suit farmers’ needs and farming conditions.

Twenty four Jersey calves were randomly blocked according to sex and birth date, to determine the effects of supplementing Carica papaya seed (Linn) meal (CPSM) on health and growth performance of calves. In the first study, calves were fed CPSM for only 2 days to determine faecal pathogen population. In the second study; calves were randomly assigned at birth to three treatments and fed until weaning at 42 days. Each treatment had six calves. Treatments were; 1) a control group, which did not receive additive; 2) a group that was supplemented 5 g/d of Carica papaya seed meal (CPSM) and 3) the last group that was supplemented 5 g/d of a commercial product containing Lactobacillus acidophilus (Lact). After receiving milk with colostrum from their dams for 3 consecutive days after birth, calves had commercial starter pellet and fresh water ad lib. Treatments were added to whole milk from day 4 and fed to calves before being allowed to suckle from the dams for 30 min three times a day (08:00; 12:00 and 17:00). Calf starter dry matter intake (DMI) was evaluated daily while body weight (BW) and body structural growth were measured weekly. Faecal samples were collected directly from the rectum on day 7 and 10, before and after receiving CPSM respectively. The DMI; DMI/BW; BW and BWG of calves did not differ among treatments, and averaged 305.4 g/d; 7.7 g/d per BW; 39.4 kg and 32.1 kg, respectively. The initial BW, 22.2 ± 1.49 kg did not differ among groups, but the weaning BW was higher (p<0.05) for CPSM fed calves compared to control diet fed calves. It did not differ between control and Lact calves. Calves in Lact and CPSM treatments had similar average daily gain (ADG) and heart girth (HG), which were higher (p<0.05) than calves fed the control treatment. Calves fed CPSM had higher (p<0.05) hip width (HW) and shoulder height (SH) than control calves. There were effects of time (p<0.001) for starter DMI/BW, ADG and all structural body parameters, and effects (p<0.05) of interaction between time and treatments for only starter DMI/BW, ADG and HG. The CPSM treatment reduced faecal coliforms and E. coli (p<0.05) by 93.6% and 96.1%, respectively; and tended to reduce Enterobacteriaceae (p=0.056) by 96.4%. The present study revealed that feeding CPSM to calves during the pre-weaning period increased growth performance by improving average daily gain, feed efficiency and enhancing health status due to low faecal pathogen count / Agriculture, Animal Health and Human Ecology / M. Sc. (Agriculture)

Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-17T15:03:17Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 FernandaLC.pdf: 619525 bytes, checksum: b172a729547f262e355961911646e833 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2007-03-19 / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cient?fico e Tecnol?gico / The technology of anaerobic reactors for sanitary wastewater treatment has been extensively developed in Brazil, and today it is practically consolidated. They present several advantages, such as low construction and operating costs, and low sludge production, the anaerobic reactors are an attractive alternative to minimize problematic lack of basic sanitation in urban areas, and also of the rural areas. The anaerobic filters have been widely used in Brazil. It produces an effluent with low concentration of organic matter and solids suspended, besides conserving the nutrients, therefore, it is good for use in irrigation, but the practice must be associated with knowledge of the pathogens presence. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the efficiency of anaerobic filters in removal faecal coliforms and helminth eggs, and to verify if the effluent can be used for agricultural purposes, according to the World Organization of Health (WHO, 1989). The protocol used to enumerate helminths eggs was the modified Bailenger method, (Ayres and Mara, 1996) recommended by WHO for evaluation of raw effluent and treated effluent. The membrane filtration method was utilized to determine the concentrations of faecal coliforms. Three different systems of sewer treatment composed by anaerobic filters were analyzed. The results, in a general analysis, showed that all the researched systems reached a larger removal than 93% to helminth eggs, resulting in an effluent with smaller average than 1 egg/L. One of these systems, Sistema RN, reached a larger removal than 99%, confirming the good performance of the anaerobic filters in removal helminths eggs. Even with low concentrations of eggs in the influent, the filters were capable to remove this parameter efficiently. About faecal coliforms, it was observed for all the researched systems an effluent with 106 CFU/100mL. The high concentrations to faecal coliforms in the effluent just allow reuse for restricted irrigation, in agreement with the guidelines of WHO. Although the researched systems have not removed faecal coliforms efficiently, the results indicated a good efficiency of the anaerobic filters in removal helminth eggs / A tecnologia de reatores anaer?bios para o tratamento de esgoto sanit?rio vem sendo extensivamente desenvolvida no Brasil, e hoje encontra-se praticamente consolidada. Apresentando diversas vantagens, como baixos custos de constru??o e opera??o, e baixa produ??o de lodo, os reatores anaer?bios s?o uma alternativa bastante atrativa para a mitiga??o dos problemas de saneamento b?sico urbano, e tamb?m das ?reas rurais. Os filtros anaer?bios v?m sendo bastante aplicados no Brasil. Sua utiliza??o produz um efluente com baixa concentra??o de mat?ria org?nica e s?lidos suspensos, al?m de conservar os nutrientes, sendo por isso muito bom para irriga??o com fins produtivos, desde que sejam resguardados os cuidados com a presen?a de organismos patog?nicos. Este trabalho teve por objetivo avaliar a efici?ncia de filtros anaer?bios na remo??o de coliformes fecais e ovos de helmintos, e verificar se os mesmos atendem ?s recomenda??es sanit?rias para reuso em irriga??o, segundo a Organiza??o Mundial de Sa?de - OMS (WHO, 1989). Para enumera??o dos ovos de helmintos foi utilizada a t?cnica de Bailenger modificada (Ayres e Mara, 1996), que deu origem ? metodologia atualmente recomendada pela OMS para avalia??o de ?guas residu?rias brutas e tratadas. Para determina??o de coliformes fecais foi utilizado o m?todo da membrana filtrante. Foram analisados tr?s diferentes sistemas de tratamento de esgoto compostos por filtros anaer?bios. Numa an?lise geral dos resultados, observou-se que todos os sistemas pesquisados atingiram efici?ncia maior que 93% para remo??o de ovos de helmintos, resultando em um efluente final com valor m?dio menor que 1 ovo/L. Um dos sistemas, o Sistema RN, alcan?ou uma remo??o maior que 99%, confirmando o bom desempenho dos filtros anaer?bios na remo??o de ovos de helmintos. Mesmo com baixas concentra??es de ovos no afluente, os filtros foram capazes de remover eficientemente este par?metro. Em rela??o ? contagem de coliformes fecais, foi observado, para todos os sistemas pesquisados um efluente final com cerca de 106 UFC/100mL. As altas concentra??es de coliformes fecais no efluente dos filtros permitem a reutiliza??o apenas para irriga??o restrita, de acordo com as diretrizes da OMS. Apesar dos sistemas pesquisados n?o removerem eficazmente coliformes fecais, os resultados encontrados no presente estudo indicaram uma boa efici?ncia dos filtros anaer?bios na remo??o de ovos de helmintos

Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-17T15:03:32Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 MarcellaSLA_DISSERT.pdf: 2551228 bytes, checksum: 0102a63798a5e4ea6258e625c054ceb4 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-12-28 / The sludge generated in stabilization ponds can be designed for various purposes, among them we mention agricultural use, recovery of degraded areas and civil construction. The choice of these alternatives should be made based on qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the sludge. In this context, this study characterized the digested sludge from an anaerobic lagoon in Cidade do Natal/RN, which deals exclusively with residues of depleted septic tanks and pits. The sludge showed levels of macro and micronutrients that confirm its potential for agriculture, with 139.49 g.kg -1 organic matter, 15.40 g.kg-1 nitrogen and metal concentrations below those required by Resolution No. 375/06 of CONAMA, besides the absence of fecal coliform and less than 0.15 viable helminthes eggs/g, on average. The particle size distribution showed that most of the particles have a diameter similar to the sand, allowing the replacement of this input, for example. Analysis of the leachate and of the sludge solubilized classified as non-inert and non-hazardous according to NBR 10.004/04. The volume produced in three years of operation by the pond was 1903.50m?, equivalent to approximately 400 kg of dry sludge. Overall, the concentrations of the parameters were similar to literature, although none of them addresses sludge anaerobic pond treating sewer from septic tanks and pits.The sludgepresents technical feasibility to various types of use, however the cost of dewatering and especially with transport can derail it. It needs to be made a more thorough study of the costs to prove its economic viability / O lodo gerado em lagoas de estabiliza??o pode ser destinado para diversos fins, dentre eles citam-se o uso agr?cola, a recupera??o de ?reas degradas e a constru??o civil. A escolha dessas alternativas deve ser feita baseada nas caracter?sticas qualitativas e quantitativas do lodo. Nesse contexto, esse trabalho caracterizou o lodo digerido de uma lagoa anaer?bia na Cidade do Natal/RN, que trata exclusivamente os res?duos esgotados de tanques s?pticos e fossas. O lodo apresentou teores de macro e micronutrientes que confirmam seu potencial para a pr?tica agr?cola, com 139,49 g.kg-1 de mat?ria org?nica, 15,40 g.kg-1 de nitrog?nio e concentra??es de metais inferiores ?s exigidas pela Resolu??o n? 375/06 do CONAMA, al?m de aus?ncia de coliformes termotolerantes e menos de 0,15 ovos de helmintos vi?veis/g. em m?dia. As granulometria mostrou que a maioria das part?culas tem di?metro semelhante ao da areia, permitindo a substitui??o desse insumo, por exemplo. An?lises do lixiviado e do solubilizado classificaram o lodo como n?o inerte e n?o perigoso, de acordo com a NBR 10.004/04. O volume produzido em tr?s anos de funcionamento pela lagoa foi de 1.903,50m?, equivalente a aproximadamente400 kg de lodo seco.De forma geral, as concentra??es dos par?metros foram semelhantes ? literatura pesquisada, embora nenhuma delas aborde lodo de lagoa anaer?bia tratando res?duos esgotados de tanques s?pticos e fossas. O lodo apresenta viabilidade t?cnica para v?rios tipos de uso, por?m os custos com desaguamento e principalmente com transporte podem inviabiliz?-lo. ? necess?rio que seja feito um estudo mais aprofundado dos custos para atestar sua viabilidade econ?mica

Dans de nombreux pays en développement, la qualité médiocre de l'eau constitue une menace majeure pour la santé humaine. Par ailleurs, le manque d'accès à l'eau potable et à l'assainissement sont un frein majeur au développement. La Fleuve Rouge est le deuxième plus grand fleuve au Vietnam et constitue la principale source d'eau pour la population du Nord-Vietnam. Cette thèse présente les résultats des observations et de la modélisation des bactéries indicatrices de la contamination fécales (BICF) et du carbone organique (CO) dans la Fleuve Rouge. Le modèle Seneque/RIVERSTRAHLER utilisant l’ensemble des données recueillies a permis d'étudier la dynamique et la répartition saisonnière des BICF et du CO dans la Fleuve Rouge et ses affluents. Un scénario, basé sur l’évolution démographique et les changements d’usage des terres prévus à l'horizon 2050, a montré une augmentation limitée des nombres des BICF par rapport à la situation actuelle. Ceci est particulièrement le cas pour la ville d’Hanoi même si la population devrait tripler d'ici 2050. Les apports en CO et la respiration hétérotrophe résultant du CO abouti à un système qui est une forte source en CO2 pour l’atmosphère. Les résultats du modèle reflètent également l'importance des différents usages des terres, le débit et la prédominance des sources diffuses relatifs aux sources ponctuelles sur les BIFC et CO dans le Fleuve Rouge. Cette thèse fournit de nouvelles informations sur les teneurs en BICF et CO dans la Fleuve Rouge ainsi qu’une base de discussion pour les décideurs sur la gestion future des eaux usées rejetés dans ce Fleuve. / In many developing countries, poor water quality poses a major threat to human health and the lack of access to clean drinking water and adequate sanitation continues is a major brake on development. The Red River is the second largest river in Vietnam and constitutes the main water source for the population of North Vietnam. This thesis presents the results from observations and modeling of both faecal indicator bacteria (FIB) and organic carbon (OC) in the Red River system, North Vietnam. The objective of this work was to measure FIB numbers and OC concentrations in this system and then to model these parameters in order to investigate scenarios for 2050 when population in the area is estimated to have doubled. The dataset was then modeled using the Seneque/Riverstrahler model in order to investigate the dynamics and seasonal distribution of FIB and OC in the Red River and its upstream tributaries. A scenario, based on the predicted changes in future demographics and land use in the Red River system for the 2050 horizon, showed only a limited increase of FIB numbers compared with the present situation. This was particularly the case in Hanoi even though the population is expected to triple by 2050. The OC inputs and the resulting heterotrophic respiration of this OC resulted in a system that was a strong CO2 source. The model results also reflected the importance of land use, discharge and the dominance of non-point sources over point sources for FIB and OC in the Red River. This thesis provides some new information on FIB in the Red River as well as providing a base for discussion with decision makers on the future management of wastewater in the Red River.

Magister Scientiae - MSc / The time bound agenda of the Millennium Development Goals (MDG's) aims at reducing poverty, extending gender equality and advancing opportunities for health and education by addressing current and future water resource and sanitation needs. In many rural areas of South Africa, the cost implication of routing surface water supplies and providing water borne sewerage may far exceed the budgets of local water service authorities. This has resulted in a major thrust in service provision via localised sources, mainly boreholes and springs as well as on site sanitation options. Whilst the National Water Act (Act 36 of 1998) mandates the South African government to provide potable water to all citizens in an equitable manner, this needs to be balanced against the preservation of the country&rsquo;s water resources both quantitatively and qualitatively to ensure sustainability. It is imperative that this fine balance between protection and effecting societal demands and economic development through large-scale water provision be maintained, as successful strategising will be resultant of integrated social, economic and environmental issues especially in economically developing countries. In order to fulfil the mandate of the NWA, policies and strategies for effective protection and use of groundwater resources have been drawn up and are in the process of being drawn up by the national Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF). The major scope of research in this thesis stems from feasibility studies commissioned by the DWAF for the implementation of a groundwater protection zoning policy for the management and protection of groundwater resource quality. The research work focuses on specifically the microbiological zone of protection and attempts to determine the fate of various pathogens that emanate from on site sanitation facilities as they move through the subsurface. The research was predominantly proposed as a desktop collation and analysis of existing published data however; it was later decided to include a local case study site. / South Africa

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD (Biodiversity and Conservation Biology) / Nearly one-third of the world’s tortoises live in South Africa, but little is known about their habitat requirements and feeding ecology. Chersina angulata, the angulate tortoise, is endemic to southern Africa, with a wide distribution along the western and southern coasts. Because this tortoise occupies a number of different habitat types, it has always been considered a generalist herbivore, although little is known about its diet and other needs. This study evaluates the habitat characteristics and feeding ecology of C. angulata at two study sites in the southwestern Cape, the West Coast National Park (WCNP) and Dassen Island (DI). The WCNP is a large conserved area in the Fynbos biome, along the southwestern coast of South Africa, whereas DI is a small offshore island with low floral and faunal diversity, just south of the WCNP. The efficacy of three methods used to study the feeding ecology of herbivores, focal observations, macroscopic faecal analysis and histological analysis of scats, was evaluated. Plant cover, species diversity, and the variety of growth forms were substantially larger at the WCNP than on DI. In the WCNP, shrubs and grasses were the dominant growth forms but the vegetation also included herbs, succulents, restios, sedges and parasitic plants. A few perennial species such as the grass Ehrharta villosa, shrubs such as Helichrysum niveum, Nylandtia spinosa and Rhus spp., and succulents such as Carpobrotus edulis and Ruschia spp., provided most of the plant cover. DI had a depauperate flora, consisting of succulents and herbs, and ephemeral plants contributed more than perennials did to plant cover throughout the year. The succulents Mesembryanthemum crystallinum and Tetragonia fruticosa provided most of the cover on DI. Angulate tortoises are herbivores and 72 diet plants in 32 plant families were identified to the species or genus level. Several diet species, however, could not be identified. In addition to angiosperms, the tortoises’ diet included mosses, mushrooms, insects,snails and animal faeces. The most important growth forms in the diet were herbs and grasses. The diet of the WCNP tortoises was more diverse than the diet of DI tortoises, but the number of principal food items in the diet did not differ between the two sites. Over an annual cycle, WCNP tortoises had four principal food plants while DI tortoises had five principal food plants. At both sites, principal food plants changed with the season and few plants remained principal food items in more than one season. Cynodon dactylon was a principal food item in three of the four seasons in the WCNP, whereas Trachyandra divaricata was a principal food plant each season on DI. Most principal food plants were grass or herb species but the sedge Ficinia nigrescens, and a succulent that could be identified only to the family level (Aizoaceae), featured strongly in the spring diets of DI and WCNP tortoises, respectively. The three study methods did not provide the same type or quality of information about the feeding ecology of angulate tortoises. The small size and wary nature of angulate tortoises compromised focal studies because it was often not possible to see what the tortoises ate. This method, however, provided the interesting observation that rabbit faecal pellets contributed nearly 30% to summer and autumn diets on DI when food was scarce. Rabbit faeces may not only provide a source of nutrients but may also supplement the microflora, required to digest cellulose, in the tortoises’ guts. Macroscopic evaluation of the tortoises’ scats appeared to be an ineffective method to identify diet plants, and the bulk of the scat mass could not be identified. This indicates that angulate tortoises either selected food low in fibrous content or that the digestive system of the tortoises dealt efficiently with tough plant material. The macroscopic method was the only method that highlighted the large contribution of fruits / seeds to the diet of angulate tortoises. Since the tortoises digested many seeds only partially, or not at all, C. angulata is potentially an important agent of seed dispersal in the southwestern Cape. The macroscopic study showed that on DI, sand made up 28% of the scat mass in spring, whereas sand never made a substantial contribution to the scat composition of WCNP tortoises. Lithophagy may be an important strategy in a depauperate habitat, such as DI, because the abrasive action of sand may help with the digestion of tough plants, or the sand may provide the tortoises with important minerals that are deficient in their food plants.The histological analysis of scats provided the most comprehensive diet list for C. angulata. Selection indices based on data from the histological analysis indicated that angulate tortoises were highly selective in their food choice. Most of the principal food items were selected out of proportion to their availability and the tortoises avoided the most abundant plants in their habitats. Several factors, such as palatability, accessibility and profitability, may have influenced their food choice. The proportional similarity indices for WCNP and DI tortoises, respectively, were 0.31 and 0.16, confirming that C. angulata is a food specialist and not a food generalist as was previously thought. This factor should be considered in the management of this species and in future conservation planning of its habitat. / South Africa

SANITATION, PUBLIC HEALTH AND THE ENVIRONMENT The approach to sanitation worldwide should be ecologically sustainable, i.e. concerned with protection of the environment. This means that sanitation systems should neither pollute ecosystems nor deplete scarce resources. It further implies that sanitation systems should not lead to degrading water or land and should, where possible, ameliorate existing problems caused by pollution. More research and better designs are needed. Human excreta can be rendered harmless, and toilet designs that do this in harmony with agricultural and social customs hold promise for the future. Problems with conventional sanitation systems have been shown to include inadequate institutional capacity to deal with the sanitation process, a fixation with providing either a full waterborne system or a VIP toilet, the social acceptability of various systems, and the perception that dry, on-site sanitation systems are inherently inferior. The basic purpose of any sanitation system is to contain human excreta (chiefly faeces) and prevent the spread of infectious diseases, while avoiding damage to the environment. An alternative sanitation technology known as urine-diversion (UD) performs these functions with fewer operational and maintenance problems than those associated with conventional VIP toilets, (for example, it is a major and expensive operation to desludge full pits, which is not the case with UD toilets as the vaults can be quickly and easily emptied using hand tools) and also provides a free, easily accessible and valuable agricultural resource for those who wish to use it. This technology represents one aspect of an approach, or philosophy, termed “ecological sanitation” or “ecosan.” Key features of ecosan are prevention of pollution and disease caused by human excreta, treatment of human excreta as a resource rather than as waste, and recovery and recycling of the nutrients. In nature, excreta from humans and animals play an essential role in building healthy soils and providing valuable nutrients for plants. Conventional approaches to sanitation misplace these nutrients, dispose of them and break this cycle. UD systems have been successfully implemented in many countries, including South Africa where more than 60 000 of these toilets have been built since 1997. However, despite much research having been carried out internationally and locally, various questions still remain, particularly on the health aspects of operation, maintenance, and excreta use or disposal. Not enough is known about the dehydrating processes taking place inside the faeces vault, and there is still disagreement on safe retention periods and microbiological stability of the final product. The roles of dryness, pH, temperature and time in pathogen destruction also need to be further clarified. In addition, it is critically important that toilet users are able to operate and maintain their systems easily and safely, particularly while emptying the vaults and recycling or otherwise dealing with the contents. Engineers need to understand and take all these issues into consideration before they can properly design and implement sustainable UD sanitation systems. It is therefore important to develop guidelines for sanitation practitioners that set out best practices for construction and operation of UD toilets. Construction recommendations are important because good construction facilitates easy operation, and also promotes rapid pathogen destruction. Easy operation in turn directly influences the health risks associated with removing faecal material from the vaults. Handling of faecal material is an aspect inherent in the operation of UD ecological sanitation systems, because emptying of the vault is usually done using hand tools. If the faecal material is also used for agricultural purposes then further handling must of necessity take place. As such, there is a health concern, both for the person(s) handling the material and for the wider public who may be consumers of the fertilised crops. It is therefore necessary that these health concerns be quantified, in order that proper regulation may take place. <b<CONCLUSIONS FROM THE LITERATURE REVIEW The primary aim of sanitation is to prevent the transmission of excreta-related diseases. However, with all sanitation systems there is a risk of disease transmission related to the handling or use of the end product. Therefore, even a well functioning system could enhance pathogen survival and lead to an increased risk of disease transmission for those handling the end products or consuming crops fertilised with them. A greater understanding of pathogen die-off in dry sanitation systems is required where handling and/or use of excreta are expected. Pathogen destruction in dry sanitation systems, particularly in the vaults of urine-diversion (UD) toilets, is mainly dependent on storage time, pH, temperature, humidity, moisture content, organic content of the faecal material, and type of bulking agent added. It is of utmost importance to ensure that the material is safe to handle. This implies that the primary treatment in the vault should, as far as possible, ensure the required level of safety. While much research has been carried out internationally into pathogen destruction in the vaults of UD toilets, the same cannot be said of South Africa. There is also a wide range of results and conclusions, with recommended storage times varying from six months to two years. Construction and operational guidelines are required in order to assist practitioners in these and other respects. Sound management practices could play an important role in reducing the health risks involved in emptying the vaults of UD toilets and the disposal or further use of faecal material. From the public health viewpoint, it is necessary to reduce, as far as possible, the risk of handling faecal material. To do this, a better understanding of the factors influencing pathogen die-off in the vaults is required. FOCUS OF THIS THESIS The primary aim of this thesis is to investigate the efficacy of various methods aimed at enhancing pathogen destruction in the vaults of UD toilets, with the aim of (a) establishing the best combination of factors/methods, in particular the vault storage period required, and (b) producing guidelines for the construction, operation and regulation of these systems. The overall purpose of the research is to establish safety criteria for handling of faecal material from UD toilets. FIELD TRIALS: MICROBIOLOGICAL EFFECTS ON FOOD CROPS FERTILISED WITH FAECAL MATERIAL FROM URINE-DIVERSION TOILETS Recycling excreta to soils reduces the need for chemical fertilisers; however, pathogens are recycled to humans if improper agricultural practices are followed. Concerns about using faecal material include higher pathogenic content in developing countries compared to that in developed countries. This material, as well as that from other sanitation alternatives in small-scale systems, demands more personal involvement from the users (including handling), which constitutes a higher human exposure level compared to that from conventional piped systems. Nevertheless, it is considered that where the material can improve agricultural productivity, it can contribute to improving the nutritional status of the population, thus improving public health. Although ecosan technology is spreading all over the world, and with it the recycling of excreta to soils, only a few researchers have addressed the problems associated with the revalorization practice or documented the pathogen die-off. Moreover, little data about the microbial quality of ecosan faecal material from developing countries (where the health risks are the highest) are available. The objective of this research was thus to investigate the potential health risks of using faecal material in agriculture by determining the pathogen uptake on the surfaces of the edible portions of the crops. Faecal material of between one and three months old was extracted from a number of UD toilets in the eThekwini (Durban) municipal area. This was used primarily for the experimental work described in the next section, but for the purposes of this particular experiment it was first left in a heap in the open air for a further four months. Thereafter it was used as a soil amendment in the cultivation of spinach and carrots. Detailed microbiological tests were conducted on this material as well as on the in situ soil before sowing and after harvesting, on the irrigation water, and on the harvested crops. Applying different rates of material to spinach and carrots, two common edible crops, it was found that the bacteria and fungi content were only noticeable for the higher application rates (>35t/ha), while the helminth ova content varied, both in leaves and stems, depending on the quantity of material applied. Helminth ova content was, for both crops, more prevalent in leaves, suggesting that the ova adhere preferentially to plants rather than soil. It was thus illustrated that there is a health implication involved in growing edible crops in soils amended with ecosan biosolids. Even if in this case the spinach and carrots were cooked before consumption, normal handling of the crops during harvesting and preparation could have caused infection if personal hygiene was unsatisfactory. It is therefore important that crop growers and consumers, as well as proponents of biosolids use, are aware of the storage and treatment requirements for ecosan biosolids before these are applied to soils where crops are grown. DETAILED INVESTIGATION INTO VAULT PROCESSES It is hypothesised that the most advantageous approach to pathogen destruction in a UD toilet vault is to maximise the effects of various environmental factors, e.g. high pH, high temperature, low moisture, type of bulking agent and storage time. In order to quantify these effects a field experiment was set up consisting of 12 UD toilet vaults, each with a different combination of faeces and bulking agent (soil, ash, wood shavings, NaOH or straw), ventilation (ventpipe / no ventpipe) and vault lid material (concrete, metal or perspex). Faecal material was obtained from UD toilets in the eThekwini area, as described above. Temperature probes, which were connected to a data logger, were inserted in the heaps and the logger monitored over a period of nearly 10 months. This enabled a number of graphs to be drawn illustrating the effect of the above parameters on heap temperature over the experimental period. During the coldest week in winter the mean heap temperatures averaged 16,8°C, while the minimum and maximum averaged 14,8°C and 18,8°C respectively. During the warmest week in summer mean heap temperatures averaged 27,6°C, while the minimum and maximum averaged 25,6°C and 29,3°C respectively. In addition, samples were taken at various intervals from each vault as well as from the main heap of faecal material that was left exposed to the elements. The samples were subjected to microbiological testing in order to quantify the pathogen die-off over time for each vault as well as for the main heap. In the vaults, total coliform reduced by 3 log10 (99,9%) at between 130 and 250 days, faecal coliform between 100 and 250 days, and faecal streptococci from 125 days and longer. In the main heap, these times varied from 115 days for both total and faecal coliform to 140 days for faecal streptococci. Viable Ascaris ova were reduced to zero between 44 and 174 days in the vaults and by 44 days in the main heap. The conclusions drawn from the xperimentation were the following: <ul> <li>Influence of ventpipe Ventilation of the vault by means of a ventpipe does not result in any meaningful difference in either the vault temperature or rate of pathogen die-off.</li> <li>Influence of vault lid material The lid material, and by inference also the material of the vault walls, has no significant effect on the temperature of the heap or the associated pathogen die-off.</li> <li>Type of bulking agent While the type of bulking agent used does not significantly influence the temperature of the faecal material, it does have an effect on the rate of pathogen die-off. The ordinary soil mix was seen to give the best results, and this was ascribed to the effect of competing microorganisms in the soil itself.</li> <li>Influence of sunshine and rain The main heap of material (faeces/soil mix) that was exposed to the elements performed among the best in terms of pathogen die-off. Apart from the influence of competing microorganisms in the soil on the pathogens as described above, this good performance was also ascribed to the effect of UV radiation and alternate wetting/drying and heating/cooling cycles, which suggests that open-air exposure is likely to provide the best treatment.</li></ul> Comparing the results of this research with other local and international research, it appears that there is a great deal of convergence in the results. It is concluded that vaults of UD toilets should be sized for a storage period of 12 months from last use. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CONSTRUCTION, OPERATION AND REGULATION OF URINE-DIVERSION TOILETS The standard of UD toilets in South Africa varies greatly. While there are many good examples of the technology, there are also many that have been ill-conceived and are badly built and poorly operated. Project implementers are responsible for the quality of sanitation schemes and should be equipped with the necessary information to oversee the process. The guidelines are aimed at providing implementers with, firstly, the necessary technical information to build good quality UD toilets and, secondly, the basic operation and maintenance tasks that should be conveyed to the toilet owners. Basic regulatory guidelines for the responsible authorities are also given. The guidelines are intended to be a stand-alone document and some repetition of information from earlier chapters is thus unavoidable. The technology of urine diversion is introduced, followed by basic design and construction guidelines, including drawings, for the superstructure and vault of a UD toilet. Both single- and double-vault toilets are discussed. A number of photographs are also provided, illustrating good and bad building practices. Further aspects discussed are requirements for urine pipes and ventilation. Operation and maintenance of UD toilets are subsequently covered. Topics discussed are dehydration, odour, fly control, cleaning of the pedestal, disposal of anal cleansing material, urine collection and disposal, clearing of blockages in urine pipes, and faeces management. The above guidelines are aimed at designers, builders and toilet users. However, organisations responsible for administering public and environmental health, such as Departments of Health, Environmental Affairs, etc, as well as the local and regional authorities that actually implement the sanitation schemes, should become actively involved in regulating the operation of UD toilets, particularly the removal and disposal of faecal material. Some regulatory guidelines are therefore also included to assist these organisations to set uniform (high) standards in their respective jurisdictions. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH RELATED TO THIS THESIS It is deemed important that the field trials conducted in the various vaults as described earlier are repeated in other climatic areas, for example a hot and dry area, as it is likely that different results regarding recommended minimum storage periods will be obtained. This should be supplemented by trials involving co-composting of the faeces mix with other organic material, in order to compare the efficacy of this method with the dehydration process. Further, vault lids made of PVC should be tested for enhancing heat gain in the vaults. Finally, long-tem measurements of heap pH should be made in order to ascertain if high pH amendments (wood ash, lime, etc) do in fact maintain their initial pH level. Additional field trials, similar to those described earlier for spinach and carrots, should be undertaken with a view to making recommendations regarding maximum application rates of faecal material. These should consist of food crops where the edible portions are either in or near to the soil, such as beetroot, onion, potatoes, tomatoes, etc. Trials involving urine should also be considered in order to determine the most advantageous application rate for the various crops. Another important topic is recommended for further research on the subject of UD toilets. At present, virtually all the UD toilets built in the country have been for communities on the lower end of the income scale and who previously had no formal sanitation facility at all or, at best, an unimproved pit toilet. Research carried out by CSIR in a number of communities has revealed people’s resistance to handling their faecal material, while in others it has not been a problem. There is often a general viewpoint in a village that “the municipality must take the faeces away.” However, willingness has also been expressed in some villages to pay for a faeces removal service. For instance, this has borne fruit in an area of Kimberley with UD toilets where householders pay a local resident to remove the faecal material on a regular basis. This is done by means of a wheelbarrow, and the material is stockpiled at a nearby approved facility from where it is destined for co-composting with other municipal waste. However, this has not yet been attempted on a large scale in an area with hundreds, or even thousands, of UD toilets. While a theoretical desktop study has been carried out on the feasibility of setting up a large-scale faeces collection concern, such an enterprise does not yet exist in the country. It is suggested that one be set up utilising a horse- or donkey-drawn cart in a village, or group of villages, with sufficient UD toilets available to ensure that a viable business can be conducted. The cooperation of the particular local authority will be required. If successful faeces collection/disposal services could be established in areas with UD toilets it would greatly enhance the social acceptability, and therefore the viability, of this sanitation technology. / Thesis (PhD(Civil Engineering))--University of Pretoria, 2008. / Civil Engineering / unrestricted

Thesis (MPA.) -- University of Limpopo, 2019 / Polokwane Municipality is currently experiencing water shortages, which is affecting households and industries’ which is used to remove faeces and transport them to the sewage plant through sewer networks, as the system is waterborne. This research study aims at determining the status of faecal sludge management with the aim of developing a faecal sludge management projection plan for the City of Polokwane. The plan will enable the city to understand the current and future levels of faecal sludge production and it will also highlight the water demand for faecal sludge disposal. As a result of this plan, the appropriate systems, which can be used for faecal sludge production, can be managed better and there will be relief in the current non-coping sewage plants in the municipality. The sewage plants are not coping with the amount of faecal sludge due to the growing population and the fact that the infrastructure was built before South Africa’s 1994 democratic dispensation. The empirical enquiry was conducted through the use of the interview guide and the purposive sampling strategy in order to obtain an in-depth context of the subject being studied. The study has noted that the Seshego and Polokwane Sewage Plants are receiving more sewage than they were built for. The only plant that is still within its capacity is the Mankweng Sewage Plant. Currently, the municipality does not have alternative plan to re-use water in the yards. It is also not planning to develop any other form of faecal sludge management to transport faeces from the toilets to the sewage plants despite the use of clean water. It is questionable as to whether the cleaned water or effluent released from the sewage to the environment meet the required standards. In Polokwane, the released effluent does not go back to the people directly but it is used to recharge 37 boreholes, which are used to supply water to the people. The other challenge in Polokwane Municipality, especially in Mankweng, is the petrol stations, hospitals, and abattoirs whose effluents are creating a problem to the water treatment plants. Therefore, there is a need to have a pre-treatment plants for hospitals and filling stations. Key Words: Sanitation, faeces, faecal sludge, sewage plants and water borne.