This thesis investigates environmental and energy policies that Turkey needs to adopt on its way to a sustainable development path. A comparative-static, multi-sectoral CGE model, TurkMod, is developed in order to analyze the potential scenarios available for the Turkish economy to attain a low-carbon society with a reduced reliance on fossil fuel imports. Domestic energy demand has significantly increased in Turkey over the past decades and this has put a lot of pressure on policy-makers as the economy greatly depends on imports of natural gas and oil as far as current energy consumption is concerned. The CGE model in this study is based on a 2012 energy-disaggregated Social Accounting Matrix (SAM) constructed as a part of this thesis as well. The energy-disaggregated SAM incorporates 18 sectors for production activities, 11 products as commodities, 2 factors of production as labor and capital, 3 institutional accounts as firms, households, and the government, a separate account for taxes on commodities, taxes on production and taxes on different types of factor use, a capital account, and finally the rest of the world (ROW) account. Disaggregating the electricity sector to include 8 different types of power generating sectors (5 of which are renewable energy sources) enables electric power substitution in the model. The energy-disaggregated SAM is further linked with satellite accounts which include data on derived energy demand and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.The macroeconomic and environmental impacts of four distinct sets of scenarios are analyzed with respect to the baseline scenario. The first scenario simulates a 30% increase in energy efficiency in the production sectors and the residential sector and evidence is found for reaching the 21% GHG mitigation target set in Turkey’s pledge for Paris Agreement compliance. The second set of scenarios is the inclusion of a medium-level and high-level carbon tax rates for coal, oil and natural gas. The carbon tax scenarios produce significant effects on both emission reduction targets and substituting fossil fuel technologies with cleaner energy types. The third scenario investigates the sectoral and welfare impacts of providing subsidies for renewable energy sources. Turkey has already adopted a scheme where renewable energies are beings subsidized and promoted, however, this policy does not produce the necessary transformation for the Turkish society when utilized solely on its own. The fourth scenario estimates the effects of changes in world prices of energy on the Turkish economy. A 20% increase in world energy prices, i.e. oil, natural gas, and coal, induces substantial changes in the breakdown of TPES and the power-generating sector, but this scenario is a rather hypothetical one as it cannot be suggested as a viable policy option. All in all, these potential energy scenarios have significant and influential impacts on the Turkish economy and its environment. Notwithstanding, a carbon tax policy proves to be the most viable scenario which leads to reduced energy intensities in all sectors, a 21% GHG emissions abatement, and a transformation of the energy sector towards having a low-carbon content along with a reduced reliance on fossil fuel imports. / Doctorat en Sciences économiques et de gestion / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Les essais contenus dans cette thèse utilisent des preuves empiriques pour répondre à deux questions qui sont d'une importance capitale compte tenu de notre compréhension croissante de la relation de préférences sociales et de la croissance économique et le bien-être au niveau des pays : les bases du comportement prosocial et l'impact des politiques visent à l'augmenter. Les niveaux de comportement prosocial ont souvent été pris comme une donnée fixée, or ces essais fournissent la preuve qu'ils sont susceptibles de changer à partir des interventions politiques. Étant donné qu'il y a peu d'interventions spécifiquement axées sur la confiance et la coopération, il peut y avoir une grande portée pour améliorer du bien-être en augmentant la politique axée sur cette question. C’est ce qui est démontré dans ces essais. Chapitre 1 aborde les bases du comportement pro-social en utilisant différents cadres dans les demandes d'une contribution au bien public, et montre que les informations sur la norme sociale est le facteur de motivation le plus puissant. Chapitre 2 fournit des résultats empiriques et théoriques que le comportement pro-social au niveau communautaire (en contribuant aux services publics locaux) dépend de l'efficacité attendue de ce comportement. Le chapitre 3 fournit de nouvelles résultats sur l'impact de la confiance sur le plan individuel, et montre qu'un programme de formation de l'enfance qui a augmenté la confiance (ainsi que amélioré l'attention et réduit la délinquance), a déclenché une chaîne d'événements pour améliorer les résultats à long terme en termes d’éducation, criminalité et performance économique. / The essays contained in this dissertation use empirical evidence to address two issues which are critically important given our growing understanding of the relationship of social preferences to economic growth and well-being at the country level: the foundations of prosocial behavior and the impact of policies designed to increase it. Levels of prosocial behavior have often been taken as a given, fixed, factor, but these essays provide evidence that they are subject to change from policy interventions. Given that there are few interventions specifically focused on trust and cooperation, there may be large scope for improving welfare by increasing the policy focus on this issue, and these essays provide evidence that this is indeed the case. Chapter 1 addresses the foundations of pro-social behavior using different frames in requests for a public good contribution, and shows that information on the social norm is the most potent motivator of public good contribution. In Chapter 2 provides empirical and theoretical evidence from a large project that pro-social behavior at the community level, in contributing to local public services, depends on the anticipated efficacy of that behavior. Chapter 3 provides new evidence on the impact of trust on the individual level, and shows that a childhood training program that increased trust, as well as improving attention and reducing delinquency, set off a chain of events resulting in better long-term outcomes for individuals in terms of education, criminality, and economic performance.

Le travail de Sraffa avait pour but decritiquer le paradigme néoclassique marginaliste,en prouvant qu'une théorie économique basée surdes données objectives concernant la productionet la répartition du surplus pouvait expliquer lesvaleurs d'échange. L'économie écologique avaitégalement initialement pour but de proposer unecritique de l'économie de l'environnementnéoclassique, en mettant en avant que lesdécisions en matière d'environnement nepouvaient seulement se baser sur des analyseséconomiques. Ma thèse étudie les relations entreces deux écoles de pensée.Ma conclusion principale est que l'analyse deSraffa ne rejette pas l'évaluation monétaire de lanature parce que la nature n'a pas d'importancepour la production économique (de ce point devue-là, la nature a au contraire une importanceinfinie) mais parce que le discours économiquen'est pas capable d'exprimer la valeur de lanature. La théorie de Sraffa aide à définir ce quepeut dire le discours économique et sur quelsobjets ontologiques il peut porter. Sur cette base,une économie écologique Sraffienne peut êtreconstruite et peut servir d'alternative àl'économie de l'environnement néoclassique. / Sraffa's original work was intendedto be a decisive criticism of the neoclassicalmarginalist paradigm, trying to reveal that aneconomic theory based on objective data aboutproduction and distribution of the surplus canexplain exchange values. Ecological economicswere also intended as a criticism of theneoclassical environment economics, trying toexpress the fact that decisions about theenvironment cannot be taken according toeconomic analyses alone. My thesis investigateshow both schools interrelate.The main point of my conclusion is that Sraffa'sanalysis rejects natural resources in hisexplanation of exchange value, not becausenature is not important for the economic process(the contribution of nature is infinite in thisrespect), but because the economic discourse isnot able to express its value. The theory of Sraffahelps to define what the economic discourse cansay and what are the ontological objects of theeconomic analysis. From there, a Sraffianecological economics can be built on Sraffa'sbasis, and it would help to construct a classicalalternative to the neoclassical environmentaleconomics.

This thesis comprises three chapters with the patent litigation as a central theme. The first chapter develops a methodology to compare the quality of patent litigation systems in six major economies: United States, United Kingdom, Germany, Japan, Korea, China. Quality is defined as whether it provides a fair and just legal environment for nullifying weak patents and adjudicating infringement actions. Ultimately, this study presents heterogeneity in the quality of the sample systems. Litigation systems with rigorous and predictable adjudication have a low risk of opportunistic and anti-competitive filings.In the second paper (Chapter 2), I explore the relationship between technology ownership frag- mentation and the opposition filing in European Patent Office (EPO). I develop a two-stages game, in which opposition can be used for an ex ante negotiation (e.g. licensing). The framework presents that high litigation risk happens under two kinds of conditions: when the ownership to external technologies is highly concentrated, profit dissipation is over the licensing revenue for the potential licensee; when the ownership to external technologies is widely fragmented, transaction cost is high for the entrance. That is, the opposition, replacing the licensing, will be frequently used. To empirically test this hypothesis, we use a data set that covers patent opposition cases during the period 1985-2005, and construct application-based “fragmentation index”. Finally, regression results confirm that opposition likelihood displays an U-shape re- lationship with the number of potential technology suppliers. Besides, the effect of ownership patterns is stronger in discrete product industries. This analysis controls for differences in filing, granted rate and other technological observed characteristics. Results are robust to alternative estimation strategies that account for over-dispersion in the patent counts data and industry heterogeneity.The third paper proposes that system designs influence the incidence of patent litigation risk. I construct three one-to-one matching data sets by total 2748 European patents, which includes 916 patents without any challenge, 916 patents having been challenged in the opposition at the European Patent Office (EPO), and 916 having been challenged in Germany Federal Patent Court (BPatG). the EPO and the BPatG follow different procedures to reexamine, amend or revoke a granted decision. To explore different filing patterns in two litigation systems, I provide a much more rigorous definition to describe patent quality: Novelty, Unique, Impact, which has been operationalized and utilized in the technological radicalness literature. By comparing litigated cases to control groups, I find a high degree of significance between opposition risk and ex ante-identifiable factors - Novelty, while a high degree of significance between invalidation trials and ex post indicator of technological radicalness - Impact. Moreover, I also confirm that the filing in the opposition is less constrained with firm’s patent portfolios and technological conditions. / Doctorat en Sciences économiques et de gestion / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Les Jeunes Entreprises Technologiques (JET) ont des besoins financiers importants aux premiers stades tandis que la plupart des marchés des capitaux entrepreneuriaux restent moins développés en Europe qu’aux Etats-Unis. Cette situation conduit les pouvoirs publics à créer des dispositifs financiers, dont des subsides, pour soutenir ces JET. Selon la Public Sponsorship Theory, ces subsides devraient soulager le contrainte de financement qui pèse sur les JET et ainsi leur permettre de poursuivre leur développement jusqu’à attirer des investisseurs ou vivre de leurs ventes. Pour autant, l’évaluation empirique de ces subsides a produit des résultats critiques. Cette thèse étudie ces critiques à Bruxelles, un environnement européen interventionniste typique, en répondant à la question « Pourquoi les Jeunes Entreprises Technologiques font elles appel aux subsid¬¬es et comment ceux-ci affectent-ils leur développement?».Cette thèse est constituée d’articles de recherche réalisés à l’aide de stratégies qualitatives supportées par des études de cas. Le Chapitre 2 présente les études de cas de 10 JET et répond aux questions :« Comment les JET se financent-elles aux premiers stades ?» et « Quel est le rôle des aides publiques dans ces stratégies de financement ?». Il décrit un écosystème bruxellois où les JET parviennent à se financer mais où les subsides sont particulièrement présents à tous les stades. Le Chapitre 3 étudie la construction et la succession des tours de table au sein de 8 JET sur une période de trois ans après leur création. En particulier, il répond aux questions :« Les subsides répondent-ils à des contraintes de financement liées à un manque d’offre de fonds ?», « Pourquoi les JET font-elles appel aux subsides ?» et « Les subsides signalent-ils les JET aux investisseurs ?». Il souligne que l’opportunisme et la volonté d’éviter la dilution sont des motifs fréquents pour demander des subsides. Il met aussi en lumière que ces derniers sont fréquemment alloués selon une stratégie de type « picking the winners » où les meilleurs JET, aussi les plus indépendantes, reçoivent le plus d’aides publiques. Finalement, le Chapitre 4 adopte une perspective centrée sur les ressources et étudie le rôle des subsides au sein de configurations de ressources humaines, sociales et financières. Nous avons utilisé la Qualitative Comparative Analysis, en progression dans la recherche sur l’entrepreneuriat, sur un échantillon de 31 JET ICT afin de répondre aux questions suivantes :« Quelles sont les configurations de ressources qui conduisent à la croissance des ventes des JET ?», « Quelles sont les configurations de ressources qui permettent aux JET d’attirer des investisseurs ?» et « Comment les subsides contribuent-ils à ces configurations ?». Au terme de cette analyse, nous présentons une taxonomie de cinq types de JET basée sur leur mix de ressources à la création. Ces types soulignent le rôle central du capital humain dans la croissance des ventes et l’attraction d’investisseurs, et ce, tandis que les subsides jouent un rôle secondaire.Ces résultats offrent une réponse à notre question de recherche. En ce qui concerne les raisons d’utiliser les subsides, l’absence d’alternative due à des contraintes de financements est rare, et ce, tandis que la majorité des demandes sont guidées par l’opportunisme et/ou la volonté d’éviter ou limiter la dilution. En ce qui concerne l’impact de ces subsides, leur rôle apparaît secondaire dans le développement commercial et financier des JET.Finalement, ces conclusions permettent de formuler des recommandations à destination des praticiens. Aux décideurs politiques, nous conseillons de revoir les modalités d’attribution des subsides pour les limiter aux équipes dotées d’un capital humain fort. De plus, nous suggérons d’encourager les initiatives destinées à renforcer la complémentarité des équipes entrepreneuriales et les aider à s’insérer dans des réseaux d’affaires. Aux entrepreneurs, nous recommandons de prêter une attention particulière à la complémentarité de leurs équipes, et ce, tant sur les plans techniques que commerciaux. / New Technology-Based Firms (NTBF) have high financial needs at early stage while most European entrepreneurial equity markets remain less developed than in the United States. This threatens their development and the expected loss of regional spillovers pushes policy makers to create financial schemes such as grants to support them. According to Public Sponsorship Theory, grants should offer NTBF a relief from funding constraints and enable them to continue their development until they get support of investors or their sales allow self-financing. However, empirical evaluation of the relevance and impact of grants has been mostly critical. This PhD investigates these criticisms in Brussels, a typical western European interventionist region, by answering the question “Why do New Technology-Based Firms use grants and how do they affect their development?”.Our PhD is made of three empirical research papers carried out following qualitative research strategies resting on multiple case studies. Chapter 2 presents case studies of 10 NTBF to answer the questions: “How do NTBF finance themselves at early stages?” and “What is the role of public aids in these financing strategies?”. It describes a Brussels ecosystem in which NTBF manage to finance themselves but where grants are particularly present at every stage. Chapter 3 studies the design and succession of financing rounds within 8 NTBF over three years after incorporation. In particular, we answer the questions: “Are grants to NTBF answering to supply-sided financing constraints?”, “Why do NTBF apply for grants?” and “Are grants signalling NTBF to investors?”. It highlights that opportunism and the avoidance of dilution are common motives for grants applications and that these are regularly allocated following a “picking the winners’ strategy. Finally, Chapter 4 adopts a resource-based perspective by studying the role of grants within resource configurations of human, social and financial capital. Based on a sample of 31 ICT NTBF, we used Qualitative Comparative Analysis, an approach still in its infancy in entrepreneurship research, to answer the following questions: “What are the resource configurations that lead to the sales growth of NTBF?”, “What are the resource configurations that lead NTBF attract equity?” and “How do grants contribute to these configurations?”. At the end of the analysis, we present a five type’s taxonomy of NTBF based on their resource mixes at incorporation. These types underscore the central role of human capital in achieving sales growth and attracting equity as well as the secondary role of grants.Results of Chapter 2, 3 and 4 allow answering our main research question. Regarding the reasons for using grants, the absence of alternative due to supply-sided constraints is rare while the overwhelming majority of requests are guided by opportunism and/or the desire to avoid or limit dilution. Regarding the impact of grants, their role appears secondary in both the commercial and financial development of NTBF.Finally, these findings lead to recommendations to practitioners. To policy makers, we advise rethinking the modalities of grants and limit their availability to teams with strong human capital. Additionally, we suggest to spur initiatives to help entrepreneurial teams strengthening their complementarity and inserting themselves within business networks. To entrepreneurs, we recommend to pay particular attention to the complementarity of their founding team on both the technical and commercial axes. / Doctorat en Sciences économiques et de gestion / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

This thesis investigates the evolutionary foundation of the Innovation System concept and the quantitative techniques that could be used for a systemic evaluation of innovation policies. This topic has been covered through 6 chapters: / Chapter I: The innovation system concept, which is the central concept of this thesis, finds its foundations in the evolutionary theory of economics and the Schumpeterian point of view on the co-evolution of innovation, organizations and institutions. Developed by Nelson and Winter in 1982, this theory is based on the idea that the surviving firms on the markets are not necessarily the ones that maximize their profits. Indeed, their ability to survive is reinforced by the development of internal organizational routines allowing for a fast adaptation to their changing environment. Thus, when assessing performances in terms of innovation in general, the single firm should not by the only centre of attention anymore. The entire environment surrounding its innovation activities should by analysed to understand the conditions underlying its failure or success. The definition of the innovation system (IS) concept finds its roots in this theory: the environment in which innovation activities take place is as important as the decision of the single innovation actor. Defined as all the institutions and organizations involved in the creation and diffusion of new knowledge and technology, the IS includes not only stakeholders of the innovation process, but also all the transversal sectors affecting innovation near or far: labour market, finance, and education… In such a context, the main justification for public intervention shifted from the market failures described by the neo-classical theory, to systemic failures, i.e. the dysfunctions of the IS, on which governments may take actions. And this shift in the policy rationale also leads to specific evaluation techniques of public initiatives. / Chapter II: The IS concept is defined as all the institutions and organizations involved in the creation, diffusion and absorption of new knowledge and technology. An important question is raised by such a point of view: what is a system? What are its components? How does it foster innovation? This theoretical step is necessary to understand all the aspect of the innovation environment that are concerned by innovation policy design. How could a policy-maker integrate the systemic framework of the IS when initiating public action with the aim to improve performances in terms of science, technology and innovation? A large part of the economic literature is dedicated to the description of innovation systems. So the aim of this chapter consists of synthetizing the aspects referenced in the economic theory as the components of the IS in a normative exercise. First, the term “system” involves the articulation of several components and the relationships existing between them. Departing from this definition, three broad aspect of the IS are considered: the actors of the innovation process, the functions of the system and the resulting objectives that should be pursued by the stakeholders, and the instruments used by public authorities to intervene in such a systemic context. The actors involved in the innovation process are not only the recipient of a public policy, they are also policy makers, implementation agents and targets of the policy measures. The functions of the IS mainly concerns the creation, diffusion and absorption of new knowledge and technology. As the role of the State is to improve the performances of such a system, those functions should be considered as the objectives of public action. Finally, the instruments used by the State to reach these goals can also be detailed: innovation policies can be implemented through direct support measures (financial or fiscal tools), the improvement of the infrastructure allowing for the diffusion of innovation, or the general framework conditions affecting performances. The normative exercise ended up with an exhaustive taxonomy that may be used for further analysis / Chapter III: As the aim of this thesis is to develop analytical tools to integrate the IS point of view in public policy evaluation, the most important aspect of the work consisted in building an exhaustive database on innovation policies implemented in the EU28 Member States and its main non-EU competitors (Australia, China, Japan, the US, India, the Russian Federation, Brazil, South Korea and Canada). This database was constructed in the context of the ENIRI study conducted by the European Commission, between 2013 and 2015. This long-lasting work involved the collection of information concerning the innovation policy measures implemented in all the considered countries, both at the national and regional levels. This information was related to the IS dimensions highlighted in previous chapter. The main sources for data collection were the RIO (former Erawatch) and OECD STIP databases, the RIM Plus Monitor and national sources (Ministry websites), as well as national experts. The budgets was also included or estimated for the 2007-2013 period. Once the data were collected, the policy measures were classified according to the theoretical canvas developed through the taxonomy of chapter II. Functional matrices combining different aspects of the IS allowed for detailed information on the distribution of policy measures among the different dimensions of the system. For example, it is possible to estimate the percentage of policy measures implemented in one country that are dedicated to the fundamental research activities in SMEs. This distribution has been computed both in absolute and budget terms. This difference provided information on the contrast existing between governmental claims and intentions in terms of innovation policies and the effective use of money dedicated to the announced target. Indeed, it is not because a substantial number of policies are dedicated to a specific sector of beneficiary that the allocated budget will be more important. Thus, this policy database should shed a light on the way innovation policies are articulated at a national level, and how they are effectively implemented through their budgets / Chapter IV: The evolutionary foundations of the IS concept imply that there is no general equilibrium describing an ideal situation to which a specific case can be compared. In other words, there is no optimal innovation system, and no ideal configuration that should be imitated by the others. This absence of equilibrium and the systemic point of view adopted in this context lead to the use of alternative techniques to evaluate performances and policies. As suggested by Edquist (2006), this has to be done through a diagnosis of the IS, consisting in the identification of the systemic failures, and the elaboration of strategy to fix the problem. This demarche will be investigated in this chapter of the thesis and the following. In this section, a diagnosis of the IS of 37 countries (28 EU and their 9 non-EU competitors) will be realized through a typology based on innovation performances indicators. The aim of such an analysis is to see whether the different IS can be gathered in groups sharing the same characteristics, relative strengths and weaknesses. The expected results should reveal groups of countries sharing the same configurations in terms of innovation process, and facing the same type of weaknesses, dysfunctions or systemic failures. By doing so, one should be able to identify the needs of each IS, i.e. the components that may need improvement and eventually public intervention. To do so, a principal component analysis and a hierarchical ascendant clustering technique have been implemented on the 37 IS, revealing 4 clusters of countries, depending on their NIS characteristics and advancement: 1) The Asian economies, 2) The lagging-behind and catching-up NIS, 3) The small opened systems, 4) The technological leaders. This analysis has been realized for the 2003-2005 and 2013-2015 periods, revealing that, if the general features of the clusters do not tend to change over time, some countries faced a change a modification of their status: Korea left the Asian group to join the leaders, Cyprus and Ireland opened their boarders to a larger extent in a decade. / Chapter V: Innovation policy typologyThis chapter is focused on the construction of an innovation policy typology based on the distributions of policies obtained in the database presented in chapter III. The results of this typology will be compared with the diagnosis realized in previous section to see if the weaknesses and needs of the NIS are effectively targeted by public action in innovation. Also, the aspects that could enhance or weaken such action, and their combination with other component of the NIS could be better understood. To this purpose, a multiple factor analysis has been implemented on the distributions of policy measures in terms of NIS components, followed by a hierarchical ascendant clustering, revealing groups of countries sharing the same characteristics in terms of policy design and implementation. 34 NIS have been examined (India, Brazil and Russia have been removed from the sample due to the bad quality of the information), using both the budget-weighted and non-budget-weighted distributions of measures on the 2007-2013 period. However, the results of this typology cannot be interpreted separately from the general innovation framework in which the public action is implemented. Indeed, countries having the same features in terms of beneficiaries and/or objectives in terms of policy do not necessarily share the same kind of IS. These implementation characteristics should rather be interpreted in light of the results obtained in the NIS diagnosis typology, in order to examiner if the public money effectively go where it is needed. In general, the different examined countries seem to effectively tackle their weaknesses, but countries facing the same types of problems do not implement the same type of policy mix, reinforcing the hypothesis that the innovation process is embedded in a large institutional framework that my orient public action in a direction rather than another. Two specific cases hold the attention in those results: South Korea, whose leader status came along with an improvement of the in force regulatory framework and a focus on private research, and Japan, dealing with research in the pharmaceutical research and ageing-population issues. / Chapter VI: The impact of macroeconomic and IS factors on the efficiency of public R&DAnother point of view can be adopted in an attempt to integrate the IS representations in policy evaluation techniques: the analysis of their impact on the efficiency of public R&D in leveraging private investments. In this chapter, a combination of two types of analysis is used to examine the problematic: the study of the efficiency of public R&D expenditure and its determinants on one hand, and the investigation of a possible crowding out effect of public R&D on the private one on another hand. The crowding out effect is translated into efficiency analysis, considering the BERD funded by government as an input, and the BERD funded by business as an output. And if an increase in the output leads to a decrease in the output, public intervention is considered to crowd out private initiative, as the firm may decide to replace its own investment with public money, instead of using it as an extra resource to increase its R&D activities. In this context, the IS as environment of R&D activities can be seen as a determinant of this efficiency, as it can strengthen or weaken this crowding out effect. The question asked in this section is the following: how to quantify and model the interdependencies existing between the different components of a NIS in order to integrate them in a quantitative analysis. This has been done in this study by implementing factorial analysis (Buesa, 2010) on a set of indicators collected in the Global Competitiveness Index database, and considered as descriptors of the different aspects of the innovation system. Those IS factors are: 1) the general STI environment, 2) the accessibility of the financial markets, 3) the internationalization of the system, 4) barriers to entrepreneurship and 5) the flexibility of labour regulation. Afterwards, these variables have been added as efficiency determinants in a stochastic frontier model assessing a possible crowding out effect between public and private initiatives. The main results showed that there is an additional effect of public R&d expenditure on private R&D investments (no crowding out). Moreover, the general STI environment and accessibility of financial markets have a positive impact on this efficiency, contrary to the presence of foreign stakeholders in the system. The two last factors remain insignificant. Those results suggest that, if public intervention should have an effect on the performances of the NIS, this relationship is also reciprocal: a well-functioning NIS may have a positive effect on the results of a policy measure. / Doctorat en Sciences économiques et de gestion / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

La thèse discute des conséquences des changements majeurs du modèle de la demande de gaz décrits précédemment. L´exigence de flexibilité à court terme a été l´une des principales caractéristiques de la demande de gaz pour la production d´électricité. Ainsi, la capacité de l´industrie du gaz à fournir des services flexibles à court terme a été valorisée par le biais du marché de l´électricité. Cela signifie une augmentation de la valeur économique des services permettant d´adopter une position attentiste vis-à-vis de la consommation avant toute prise de décision. Différents secteurs de l´industrie du gaz ont été affectés par les variations de la demande, c´est le cas de la production des champs de gaz, du stockage et des mécanismes d´importation du gaz qui ont été incités à la flexibilité. L´introduction des outils de flexibilité, qu’impliquent les variations de la demande, dépend directement des services de réseau. Par conséquent la concrétisation de la valeur économique de la flexibilité de l´industrie gazière dépend des services de réseau.Le réseau de transports de gaz est un élément-clé de l´industrie gazière portant sur deux types de flexibilités physiques: la mobilité et l´aptitude au stockage. Les propriétés physiques du gaz naturel permettent la flexibilité par la gestion des différentiels de pression. Les différentiels de pression contrôlent les mouvements de gaz. Le réseau est de loin le principal mécanisme de transport de gaz et donc un élément majeur de la filière du gaz permettant le commerce de cette matière première. Cependant, le réseau peut aussi être l´une des parties les plus couteuses de l´industrie gazière et, une fois les investissements réalisés ils ne sont ni remboursables, ni récupérables par un autre moyen car ils n'ont pas d’autres utilisations, ce sont les coûts irrécupérables. Malgré cela, la spécificité de le utilisation des actifs des réseaux évolue au cours du développement du réseau.L´intervention des réseaux de transport dans la prestation de services de flexibilité du gaz est une condition obligatoire de la flexibilité du système gazier. Premièrement parce que les services de réseau sont complémentaires de tout autre instrument de flexibilité tels que le stockage souterrain, les infrastructures GNL et le commerce de gaz. Deuxièmement, parce que les services du réseau de transport gazier, tel le que stock en conduite, peuvent également être compétitifs vis à vis d´autres instruments de flexibilité dégroupé.Par conséquent, la régulation du réseau doit prendre en compte l´impact à court et à long terme des règles d´incitation. Compte tenu du fait que le développement du réseau dépend des exigences de flux prévisibles, des variations importantes de la demande de gaz et les changements de flux qui en découlent auront un impact sur l´activité d´exploitation des réseaux gaziers. D´un côté le développement du réseau dépend de la prévision des besoins de flux, et de l´autre, la flexibilité des infrastructures du réseau conditionne nécessairement celle de l´utilisation. Par conséquent, les variations de la demande, responsable de l´accroissement des exigences de flexibilité ainsi que des variations des flux de gaz qui en découlent doivent avoir un impact sur l´exploitation du réseau de gaz et sur l´incitation aux investissements d’infrastructure. / This thesis discusses the consequences of the major changes in gas demand patterns. The requirement of short term flexibility has been one of the main features of electricity generation gas demand. As consequence, the capacity of gas industry to provide short term flexibility services has been valorized through electricity market. It means an increasing economic value to services allowing waiting and seeing before consumption decision. Different parts of the gas industry was impacted by the changes on demand, for instance gas fields productions, storage and gas importation mechanisms were incited to offer flexible provisions. The introduction of tools to provide flexibility required by demand depends on network services. It means the realization of the flexibility value of gas industry depends on gas network services. The gas transport network is the key part of gas industry, and it may provide two kinds of gas physical flexibility: mobility and storability. The physical properties of natural gas allow flexibility by means of pressure differential management. The change on pressures may compress natural gas and the pressures differences drive gas motions. The network has been, by far, the main mechanism to carry gas, thus an essential part of the gas industry chain to allow commodity trade. Network, however, may be one of the most expensive parts of gas industry, and, after the investment done, it becomes sunk costs. But the specificity of networks assets changes in the course of network development. The use of transport network in the provision of gas flexibility services is a necessary condition to provide flexibility in the gas system. First, because network services are complementary of any other flexibility tool, as underground storage, LNG infrastructures and gas trade. Second, because gas transport network services, as line-pack storage, may also be competitive to the others unbundled flexibility tools. Therefore, network regulation needs to take into account the short and the long term impact of the rules incentives. Given that network development depends on expected flow requirements, strong change on gas demand and the consequent changes on gas flows must impact gas network operation. On the one hand, network development depends on expected flow requirements, and on the other, provisions of flexibility depend necessarily on the flexible use of network infrastructures. Hence, changes on gas demand increasing flexibility requirements and the consequent changes on gas flow must impact gas network operation and must impact the incentive on infrastructures investment.

Lire le secteur informel en termes d'économie populaire éloigne l'approche purement économique qui relie le secteur informel avec les problèmes de la pauvreté de masse et aide à prendre en considération d'autres dimensions de l'économie populaire comme expression matérielle de l'ensemble des pratiques populaires. La lecture du secteur informel a beaucoup évolué depuis les années 70. Ce concept est utilisé pour la première fois dans les années septante par le BIT sur les réalités de pauvreté de masse des pays du Sud comme au Kenya, en Colombie, à Sri lanka, et en Indonésie. Réalités auxquelles les gens se sont adaptées en pratiquant des activités économiques « de survie » avec des moyens dérisoires. Ces activités que l'on interprète de secteur informel ont suscité des réactions de la part des observateurs occidentaux que les observateurs des pays du Sud, dans l'idée qu'il faut les intégrer dans le secteur moderne car elles n'obéissent pas à des règles déterminées ou qui n'a pas de caractère officiel. Elles sont pratiquées généralement par les populations démunies donc les pauvres, mais elles sont aussi pratiquées par la classe moyenne qui a vu régresser son pouvoir d'achat. Tout cela dans un contexte de la crise de la modernisation qui a débuté vers la fin des années soixante. L'objectif de cette recherche est d'appliquer la lecture en terme d'économie populaire au cas de Madagascar dont l'axe se situe dans la continuité de l'économie populaire et existence des éléments de longue période qui ont constitué les bases de l'économie populaire et ses dimensions multiples. La notion du vadin'asa est donc, le point de départ important pour faire une transition entre secteur informel et économie populaire. La crise de la modernisation a activé, renouvelé et diversifié ses formes anciennes. Le vadin'asa s'inscrit alors dans la continuité du vécu des populations ou des acteur populaires. Il renvoi à la fois à des pratiques très anciennes qui s'inscrivent dans l'histoire longue de Madagascar et à un ensemble de dimensions socioculturelles qui l'encadrent comme les réalités du fihavanana, du fokonolona, du tanindrazana et les fomba. Ainsi pour lire cette économie populaire en termes non économiques, les facteurs sociaux et facteurs culturels sont pris en considération à travers les pratiques économiques et pratiques sociales des acteurs populaires collectifs, le fokonolona, la communauté de base qui existe bien avant la centralisation du royaume merina jusqu'à maintenant, en milieu rural et en milieu urbain. Ces pratiques économiques et sociales qu'on connaît aujourd'hui entrent dans la continuité des activités séculaires, donc dans un processus historique de longues périodes. D'où l'importance de la dimension historique dans l'étude de l'économie populaire à Madagascar. L'enjeu est de changer le regard sur le secteur informel à Madagascar, et de le lire en tant qu'économie populaire et non pas comme secteur qui attend de s'intégrer dans le système économique moderne. Pour appliquer cette lecture au cas de Madagascar, deux localités ont été choisi, la commune rurale de Masindray et la commune urbaine d'Anosibe afin d'analyser l'économie populaire et de comprendre son enracinement dans les pratiques anciennes. L'économie populaire à Madagascar s'est construite en trois étapes. La première étape est celle de l'économie communautaire antérieure au temps du royaume merina, basée sur l'agriculture et l'artisanat local. Elle se fait sur les terres appropriées par les fokonolona, qui rassemblent une communauté, dans les premiers temps relativement peu différenciée. On y trouve l'équivalent de ce qui est le premier niveau selon l'historien Fernand Braudel. L'économie communautaire se réfère à un territoire, le tanindrazana la terre d'origine ou précisément les terres des ancêtres. La deuxième étape est le début de la transition de l'économie communautaire à l'économie populaire avec toujours comme base l'agriculture et l'artisanat local. C'est la période de la construction du royaume merina, qui stimule le développement du deuxième niveau. La troisième étape est le stade de l'autonomisation progressive de l'économie populaire elle-même, confrontée aux acteurs du troisième niveau. Avec l'introduction de l'économie de marché à l'époque coloniale, l'invasion du capitalisme et la mise en place des structures économiques coloniales, la vie de la grande majorité de la population a changé. L'approche historique a donc été importante pour comprendre l'enracinement de l'économie populaire dans les pratiques populaires séculaires en matières économique, sociale et culturelle. La prise en considération des acteurs des trois niveaux proposés par F. Braudel appliquée au cas de Madagascar a permis d'analyser l'évolution de l'économie populaire à travers le temps. L'économie populaire a existé, continue d'exister et continuera d'exister avec ou sans crises. Elle est tout simplement un mode de vie qui englobe le social en interaction avec l'économique et le culturel dans des pratiques simples qui s'accommodent aux réalités vécues par l'immense majorité de la population, et s'adaptent aux besoins les plus élémentaires d'une société, ancrée dans ses valeurs morales et culturelles, propre à la société malagasy. C'est ainsi que les tentatives de l'Etat de soumettre le fokonolona à plusieurs reprises, depuis le royaume merina jusqu'à la Troisième république, en passant par le système colonial, ont été vouées à l'échec.

Thesis--Geneva. / Errata slip inserted. eContent provider-neutral record in process. Description based on print version record. Bibliography: p. [221]-224. Bibliographical footnotes.

Thèse Sc. pol., Genève, 1962.