The world is increasingly urbanizing with approximately 54% of the world population livingin cities (Langemeyer, 2015). This number is expected to rise to 66% by 2050 (UN, 2014),which means that urbanized areas will expand in size with an additional 2.5 billion new urbaninhabitants (Langemeyer, 2015). Studies show that urban expansion has the effect ofdecreasing, fragmenting, and isolating natural patches by altering the size, shape, andinterconnectivity of the natural landscape (Ricketts, 2001; Alberti, 2005). The consequentloss and degradation of urban and peri-urban green/blue space and elements couldadversely affect ecosystem and its services as well as human health and well-being.Through literature review, the concepts of urban ecosystem services and green-blueinfrastructures are introduced, as well as the main design principles for green-blueinfrastructures. The thesis also briefly introduces urban policies and implementation throughcase study with a focus on Malmö city. Meanwhile, the thesis discusses how the planninginstruments of Green Space Factor and Green Points are used in the Bo01 project and howthey contributed to promote ecosystem services in built environment.Through literature review and case study, the aim of this thesis is to collect design solutionsthat can be used as inspiration and guidance to promote urban ecosystem services throughgreen-blue infrastructures in built environments at different scales.

The world is increasingly urbanizing with approximately 54% of the world population livingin cities (Langemeyer, 2015). This number is expected to rise to 66% by 2050 (UN, 2014),which means that urbanized areas will expand in size with an additional 2.5 billion new urbaninhabitants (Langemeyer, 2015). Studies show that urban expansion has the effect ofdecreasing, fragmenting, and isolating natural patches by altering the size, shape, andinterconnectivity of the natural landscape (Ricketts, 2001; Alberti, 2005). The consequentloss and degradation of urban and peri-urban green/blue space and elements couldadversely affect ecosystem and its services as well as human health and well-being.Through literature review, the concepts of urban ecosystem services and green-blueinfrastructures are introduced, as well as the main design principles for green-blueinfrastructures. The thesis also briefly introduces urban policies and implementation throughcase study with a focus on Malmö city. Meanwhile, the thesis discusses how the planninginstruments of Green Space Factor and Green Points are used in the Bo01 project and howthey contributed to promote ecosystem services in built environment.Through literature review and case study, the aim of this thesis is to collect design solutionsthat can be used as inspiration and guidance to promote urban ecosystem services throughgreen-blue infrastructures in built environments at different scales.

This study explores the understanding of the concept ecosystem services (ES) within Swedish land developers with a focus on knowledge, drivers and interests, practical experience, as well as challenges land developers experience for the implementation of solutions providing ecosystem services in projects. The research is based on interviews to representatives of eight land developers operating in Sweden and completed by the interviews of representatives from two consultancy companies. In addition to this, tools, methods and certifications systems available in the Swedish context for working with ES in detailed planning, land allocation, and further steps of a development project are analyzed from a user’s perspective based on a literature study and interviews results. The results show an important heterogeneity among developers, with different levels of knowledge and experience depending on the type of developer. Build and manage, well-established companies with a sound sustainability policy appear to be forerunners, whereas size, type of buildings managed, geographical implantation or private/public ownership showed little relevance. Both proactive and reactive attitudes towards ES were detected, the role of municipalities setting ES requirements being a major driver for ES implementation, together with the company’s sustainability policy and business opportunities. The fragmented panorama of available tools for ES implementation and the lack of available inventories explains the little knowledge and experience developers showed about existing tools. If GYF and ESTER tools are used, there is as of today a lack of a reference tool at national level, setting recognized standards for ES implementation. The research results suggest a need for a nationally recognized reference tool, simple to use, serving as a basis for dialogue, allowing scenario comparison at early phases, and including a cost perspective. Certification systems appear as a possible way forward, but further and comprehensive integration of the concept is still needed. / Denna studie undersöker förståelsen av begreppet ekosystemtjänster (ES) bland svenska fastighetsutvecklare, med fokus på kunskap, drivkrafter och intressen, praktisk erfarenhet, samt utmaningar fastighetsutvecklare upplever för implementering av lösningar som tillhandahåller ekosystemtjänster i projekt. Forskningen bygger på intervjuer med representanter för åtta byggherrar som är verksamma i Sverige och kompleteras av intervjuer med representanter från två konsultföretag. Utöver detta analyseras verktyg, metoder och certifieringssystem i svenskt sammanhang för att arbeta med ES i detaljplanering, markfördelning och ytterligare steg i utvecklingsprojekt. Analysen utförs utifrån en användares perspektiv baserat på en litteraturstudie och intervjuresultat. Resultaten visar en stor heterogenitet bland fastighetsutvecklare, med olika kunskapsnivåer och erfarenheter beroende på typ av utvecklare. Företag som bygger och förvaltar, väletablerade företag med en sund hållbarhetspolicy verkar vara föregångare, medan företags storlek, område, typ av byggnader som hanteras, eller ägandeform (privat/offentlig) visade låg relevans. Både proaktiva och reaktiva attityder till ES upptäcktes. Kommunernas roll, som ställer ES-krav är en av de viktigaste drivkraft för ES- implementering, tillsammans med företagets hållbarhetspolicy och affärsmöjligheter. Det fragmenterade panorama över tillgängliga verktyg för ES-implementering och bristen på verktygs referenslista förklarar den lilla kunskap och erfarenhet utvecklare visade om befintliga verktyg. Även om GYF- ESTER- verktyg delvis används, saknas det idag ett referensverktyg på nationell nivå som sätter erkända standarder för ES- implementering. Forskningresultaten tyder på ett behov av ett nationellt erkänt referensverktyg, enkelt att använda, som ger en bas för dialog, vilket möjliggör jämförelse av scenarier i tidiga faser och som inkluderar ett kostnadsperspektiv. Certifieringsystem framstår som en möjlig väg framåt, men ytterligare och omfattande integration av begreppet ES behövs fortfarande.

Land use/land cover (LULC) plays a vital role in the provision of ecosystem services. Changing natural vegetation to agricultural or urban uses affectss the socio-economic dynamics of the surrounding populations. Changing land use may also result in the impairment of ecosystem services. Rural and urban communities have different realities and perceptions on the importance of ecosystem services, which tend to vary by economic, generational, social, and cultural factors. This study assesses the subjective value of people in urban and rural communities on provisioning, regulating, and cultural ecosystem services. A quantitative and qualitative survey using interviews and spatial analysis with GIS is used to study ecosystem services. The survey evaluates the values, perceptions, and benefits of ecosystems in urban and rural regions. Environmental conservation plans that have been implemented on a national level and the traditional ecological activities that local communities play a crucial role in the governance of ecosystem services. There is a need to understand the effectiveness and awareness o actions resulting from governance regimes to be both applicable and useful in protecting ecosystem services in fragile and diverse ecosystems such as Ecuador.

The main goals of this study were to document the structural and functional recovery of differently restored areas, to understand better the relationship between the two, and to determine which types of measurements are best for assessing restoration success. To address these questions, an experimental system was created through topsoil removal and subsequent restoration in a blocked, completely randomized design using two levels of soil amendment (with or without 10 kg of leaf mulch per m2) and three levels of seeding treatment (no seed, a standard reclamation mix, and an alternative, wildflower dominated reclamation mix). All measurements were designed to document responses due to restoration treatment in comparison to adjacent, undisturbed, reference sites. Vegetation structure in amended sites, as measured by total vegetation cover and species richness, recovered to levels similar to references within the two years of the study. Plant community composition did not develop similarity to references in any experimental treatments. Both soil amendment and seeding type affected cellulose decomposition rates, with amended plots showing higher decomposition rates than unamended, and seeded plots exhibiting higher rates than unseeded. Enzyme activities were largely determined by soil amendment, but the reference plots consistently had higher enzymatic activity. Amended sites exhibited significant increases over time in soil respiration, reaching or surpassing the rates observed in reference areas. Methane oxidation rates were generally increased in disturbed plots compared to undisturbed references due to increased atmospheric diffusion into the soil. Amended areas exhibited depressed rates relative to unamended, and seeding level had no significant effect on methane oxidation. Over all measurements, restoration of ecosystem function was most facilitated by the addition of the soil amendment. Seeding treatment significantly altered the resultant plant community, which may have substantial, long-term consequences for succession. The inclusion of functional parameters into restoration assessment provides for better overall information concerning ecosystem performance and may add to the ability to predict long-term success of restoration efforts. / Ph. D.

The rapid expansion of urban systems in both area and population represents the most significant landuse/landcover change occurring in the world today. Urbanization is often accompanied by increasing environmental degradation. This degradation is related to stormwater runoff, air temperatures greater than surrounding rural areas, increased air and water pollution, losses of vegetated lands, and lack of access to sufficient and healthy foods in lower-income areas. Urban agriculture (UA), a practice long established in previous eras but neglected for many decades, can mediate such concerns by providing greenspaces to improve ecosystem services. Successful practice of UA requires recognition of interactions between social and environmental patterns. Neglect of these interactions leads to failure in spatially integrating social and environmental dimensions of the urban landscape, limiting the success of UA. This study investigates siting of UA within Roanoke, Virginia, a compact urban region characterized by social and environmental conditions that can be addressed by effective siting and practice of UA. This research takes a broader perspective than prior studies on UA and urban greenspaces. It proposes innovative applications of geospatial technologies for urban assessment. Studies on UA have typically focused on food insecurity, while studies on greenspaces focus on parks and tree canopy cover, without investigating interactions that promote synergies between these two efforts. Research over the past few years is now recognizing potential contributions for urban agriculture to alleviate environmental issues such as stormwater runoff, soil infertility, and the urban heat island effect. Little of this research has been devoted to the actual siting of urban agriculture to specifically alleviate both socio-economic and environmental issues. This research applies geospatial technologies to evaluate spatial patterns characterizing both environmental and socio-economic disparities within the City of Roanoke, Virginia. This approach has identified specific locations that are open and available for urban agriculture, and has appraised varying levels of socio-economic and environmental parameters. This research identified, at the census block group level, areas with varying levels of degradation. Thus, those locations in which a new urban agriculture greenspace can contribute to both socio-economic and environmental reparation. This research has identified spatial dimensions in which UA will assist in restoring ecosystem services to guide various food production activities. These results can be generalized to other urban locations and contribute to efficient use of urban land and space, improving the three pillars of worldwide sustainability – economic, environment, and social. / Ph. D.

Climate and human activities impact the timing and quantity of streamflow and floods in different ways, with important implications for people and aquatic environments. Impacts of landscape changes on streamflow and floods are known, but few studies have explored the magnitude, duration and count of floods the landscape can influence. Understanding how floods are influenced by landscape structure provides insight into how, why and where floods have changed over time, and facilitates mapping the capacity of watersheds to regulate floods. In this study, I (1) compared nine flood-return periods of 31 watersheds across North Carolina and Virginia using long-term hydrologic records, (2) examined temporal trends in precipitation, stream flashiness, and the count, magnitude and duration of small and large floods for the same watersheds, and (3) developed a methodology to map the biophysical and technological capacity of eight urban watersheds to regulate floods. I found (1) floods with return periods ≤ 10 years can be managed by manipulating landscape structure, (2) precipitation and floods have decreased in the study watersheds while stream flashiness has increased between 1991 and 2013, (3) mapping both the biophysical and technological features of the landscape improved previous efforts of representing an urban landscape's capacity to regulate floods. My results can inform researchers and managers on the effect of anthropogenic change and management responses on floods, the efficacy of current strategies and policies to manage water resources, and the spatial distribution of a watershed's capacity to regulate flooding at a high spatial resolution. / Master of Science

Urbanization is an intensive form of habitat disturbance associated with detrimental effects on biodiversity. However, few studies have investigated its effects on the number, identity and structure of species interactions while considering seasonal fluctuations in communities. Avian seed dispersal is a vital ecosystem service, and the interplay of urbanization and seasonality may impact seed dispersal in ways not predicted by either factor alone. In this study, we evaluate the effects of urbanization and season on avian seed dispersal networks in the southern Appalachians. We found that the number and richness of interactions was unaffected, but the identity of interacting bird species differed based on landscape type. We also found that species strength was impacted by urbanization and season, but other network metrics were unaffected. These results suggest that species identity should be considered when making comparisons of seed dispersal networks, as it may reveal differences between networks with implications for dispersal quality and future plant communities.

Tesis por compendio / Even though practical water resources planning and management has evolved greatly, there is still a mismatch between it and Integrated Water Resources Management. In light of the European Water Framework Directive and other European Policies related to water and sustainability, the Ecosystem Services assessment and Water Accounting methodologies have been identified as tools that can help approaching Integrated Water Resources Management. However, the existing methodologies are disconnected from the real requirements of water resources planning and management in complex river basins such as the ones suffering from water scarcity. The Water Accounting frameworks adopt a financial accounting perspective that is too exhaustive for the purpose of transmitting the relevant water stocks and flows for water managers and users in a river basin, and that entail less accuracy in the global water balance. Also, the analysed Ecosystem Assessment Tools overlook the influence of water management as well as the temporal and spatial variability of water resources and demands. This Thesis proposes methodologies for Water Accounting and Ecosystem Services Assessment which overcome the identified limitations and are especially adapted to be implemented in water scarce river basins. The Australian Water Accounting Standards are simplified to avoid exhaustive accounting for the sake of accuracy and transparency of water management information. An improved version is fully designed, and some criteria are proposed to guide its implementation at river basin scale with the purpose of improving public information and governance. A set of Integrated Water Resources Management Tools embedded in the Decision Support System AQUATOOL is tailored with economic information in order to obtain the benefits of three Freshwater Ecosystem Services considering the influence of water management with a detailed time step. The application of the resulting methodologies to different cases of study show the relevance of adopting a water management perspective in order to capture all the complexity of water scarce river basins in the results, so that they are useful for informed decision making. The Water Accounting results disclose synthesised and relevant information for water users and other stakeholders about the state of water resources and their allocation and supply during the analysed period. The Freshwater Ecosystem Services assessment results reveal helpful to classify water bodies or watersheds according to their capacity to provide environmental benefits, and to analyse the tradeoffs between the traditional water demands and the Ecosystem Services beneficiaries. Finally, the methodologies are put into context inside the Integrated Water Resources Management process that covers the target variables to consider, the tools that allow analysing the influence of management actions on them, the indicators that are more informative to water managers, and the ways to transmit the information to the general public. Furthermore, the types of analyses which can be conducted with the proposed methodologies are detailed, and illustrated with examples in scientific literature. The presented research is based on published work, which is expanded or detailed, and includes other non published material. The result is a Thesis that provides improved results and conclusions with respect to the stand-alone papers. / A pesar de que la planificación y gestión de los recursos hídricos ha evolucionado enormemente, existe todavía discordancia entre la misma y la Gestión Integrada de Recursos Hídricos. A la luz de la Directiva Europea Marco del Agua y otras Políticas Europeas relacionadas con el agua y la sostenibilidad, la Contabilidad del Agua y la evaluación de los Servicios de los Ecosistemas se han identificado como herramientas que pueden ayudar a aproximarse a la Gestión Integrada de Recursos Hídricos. Sin embargo, las metodologías existentes actualmente están desconectadas de los requisitos reales de la planificación y gestión de los recursos hídricos en cuencas hidrográficas complejas como las que sufren de escasez hídrica. Los marcos de Contabilidad del Agua adoptan una perspectiva de contabilidad financiera que es demasiado exhaustiva para el propósito de transmitir información relevante sobre las reservas y flujos a los gestores y usuarios del agua en una cuenca, y conllevan menos precisión en el balance global de agua. Además, las herramientas analizadas para la evaluación de los Servicios de los Ecosistemas pasan por alto la influencia de la gestión del agua así como la variabilidad temporal y espacial de los recursos hídricos y las demandas. Esta Tesis propone metodologías para la Contabilidad del Agua y la Evaluación de los Servicios de los Ecosistemas que superan estas limitaciones y que están especialmente adaptadas para su implementación en cuencas con escasez de agua. Los Estándares Australianos de Contabilidad del Agua se simplifican para evitar la contabilidad exhaustiva a favor de la precisión y la transparencia en la información sobre la gestión del agua. Se diseña una versión mejorada y se proponen algunos criterios para guiar su implementación a escala de cuenca con el propósito de mejorar la información pública y la gobernanza. Un conjunto de herramientas para la Gestión Integrada de Recursos Hídricos que forman parte del Sistema Soporte a la Decisión AQUATOOL se une con información económica para obtener los beneficios generados por tres Servicios de los Ecosistemas de Agua Dulce considerando la influencia de la gestión del agua a una escala temporal detallada. La aplicación de las metodologías resultantes a distintos casos de estudio muestra la relevancia de adoptar una perspectiva de gestión del agua para capturar en los resultados la complejidad de las cuencas con escasez de agua, de modo que sean útiles para la toma de decisiones informadas. Los resultados de Contabilidad del Agua muestran información sintética y relevante para los usuarios del agua y otros actores interesados sobre el estado de los recursos hídricos, y su asignación y suministro durante el periodo analizado. Los resultados de la evaluación de los Servicios de los Ecosistemas de Agua Dulce se revelan útiles para clasificar las masas de agua o subcuencas de acuerdo con su capacidad para proporcionar beneficios ambientales y para analizar el equilibrio entre las demandas de agua tradicionales y los beneficiarios de los Servicios de los Ecosistemas. Finalmente, las metodologías se ponen en contexto dentro del proceso de Gestión Integrada de Recursos Hídricos que abarca las variables objetivo a considerar, las herramientas que permiten analizar la influencia de las acciones de gestión sobre ellas, los indicadores más informativos para los gestores del agua, y los modos de transmitir la información al público en general. Además, se detallan e ilustran con ejemplos en la literatura científica los tipos de análisis que pueden llevarse a cabo mediante las metodologías propuestas. La investigación que se presenta está basada en trabajos publicados, que se expanden o detallan, e incluye material no publicado. El resultado es una Tesis que proporciona resultados y conclusiones mejorados respecto a los artículos independientes. / A pesar que la planificació i la gestió dels recursos hídrics ha evolucionat enormement, existeix encara discordancia entre aquesta i la Gestió Integrada de Recursos Hídrics. A la llum de la Directiva Europea Marc de l'Aigua i altres Polítiques Europees relacionades amb l'aigua i la sostenibilidad, la Comptabilitat de l'Aigua i l'avaluació dels Serveis dels Ecosistemes s'han identificat com a ferramentes que poden ajudar a aproximar-se a la Gestió Integrada de Recusos Hídrics. No obstant això, les metodologies existents actualment estan desconnectades dels requeriments reals de la planificació i gestió dels recursos hídricos en conques hidrogràfiques complexes com les que pateixen d'escassesa hídrica. Els marcs de Comptabilitat de l'Aigua adopten una perspectiva de Comptabilitat financera que és massa exhaustiva per al propòsit de transmetre informacó relevant sobre les reserves i fluxes als gestors i usuaris de l'aigua en una conca, i comporten menys precisió al balanç global de l'aigua. A més, les ferramentes analitzades per a l'avaluació dels Serveis dels Ecosistemes passen per alt la influència de la gestió de l'aigua així com la variabilitat temporal i espacial dels recursos hídrics i les demandes. Aquesta Tesi proposa metodologies per a la Comptabilitat de l'Aigua i l'Avaluació dels Serveis dels Ecosistemes que superen aquestes limitacions i que estan especialment adaptades per a la seua implementació en conques amb escassesa d'aigua. Els Estàndards Australians de Comptabilitat de l'Aigua es simplifiquen per evitar la comptabilitat exhaustiva a favor de la precisió i la transparència en la informació sobre la gestió de l'aigua. Es dissenya una versió millorada i es proposen alguns criteris per guiar la seua implementació a escala de conca amb el propòsit de millorar la informació pública i la governança. Un conjunt de ferramentes per a la Gestió Integrada de Recursos Hídrics que formen part del Sistema Suport a la Decisió AQUATOOL s'uneix amb informació econòmica per obtindre els beneficis generats per tres Serveis dels Ecosistemes d'Aigua Dolça considerant la influència de la gestió de l'aigua a una escala temporal detallada. L'aplicació de les metodologies resultants als distints casos d'estudi mostren la rellevància d'adoptar una perspectiva de gestió de l'aigua per capturar als resultats la complexitat de les conques amb escassesa d'aigua, de manera que siguen útils per a la presa de decisions informades. Els resultats de la Comptabilitat de l'Aigua mostren informació sintètica i rellevant per als usuaris i altres actors interessats sobre l'estat dels recursos hídric, i la seua assignació i subministrament al llarg del període analitzat. Els resultats de l'avaluació dels Serveis dels Ecosistemes d'Aigua Dolça es revelen útils per classificar les masses d'aigua o subconques d'acord amb la seua capacitat per proporcionar beneficis ambientals i per analitzar l'equilibri entre les demandes d'aigua tradicionals i els beneficiaris dels Serveis dels Ecosistemes. Finalment, les metodologies es posen en context dins del procés de Gestió Integrada de Recursos Hídrics que abarca les variables objectiu a considerar, les ferramentes que permeten analitzar la influència de les accions de gestió sobre elles, els indicadors més informatius per als gestors de l'aigua, i les maneres de transmetre la informació al públic en general. A més, es detallen i il¿lustren amb exemples en la literatura científica els tipus d'anàlisis que es poden portar a terme mitjançant les metodologies propostes. La investigació que es presenta està basada en treballs publicats, que s'expandeixen o detallen, i inclou material no publicat. El resultat és una Tesis que proporciona resultats i conclusions millorades respecte als articles independents. / Momblanch Benavent, A. (2016). Assessment of Ecosystem Services and Water Accounting Methodologies for Integrated Water Resources Management in water scarce basins [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/75523 / Compendio

UNESCO Biosphere Reserves are examples of multifunctional landscapes recognized as sources of ecosystem services and laboratories for sustainable development. Participatory mapping of ecosystem services reveals where residents value ecosystem services in a landscape. This approach is expected to provide useful knowledge to inform land use decision-making. However, the knowledge about the spatial distribution of ecosystem service values in Biosphere Reserves and the usefulness of this knowledge for practitioners remains scarce. Through the application of Public Participation Geographic Information Systems (PPGIS) in the Kristianstads Vattenrike Biosphere Reserve located in Southern Sweden, this study identifies i) hotspots and ii) bundles of ecosystem service values, as well as iii) spatial patterns of ecosystem service values regarding the three Biosphere Reserve management zones. Complementary, this study assesses the potential usefulness of the PPGIS-derived knowledge by analyzing qualitative data from a workshop with practitioners of the Kristianstads Vattenrike Biosphere Reserve. My findings reveal distinct patterns of ecosystem service values across Kristianstads Vattenrike Biosphere Reserve that reflect the Biosphere Reserve zones’ management goals. The ecosystem service values were clustered around wetlands and the densest populated areas. Respondents mapped predominantly places for outdoor recreation, biodiversity, and places with existential value. The results highlight the importance of cultural and regulating ecosystem services to people in the Biosphere Reserve. Additionally, practitioners involved in Biosphere Reserve management emphasized the potential strategic usefulness of the PPGIS knowledge for their nature restoration work.