With increasing population growth, changed consumption patterns and the resulting need for resources, the management and use of cultural landscapes has intensified during the last century. Due to this intensification, cultural landscapes in Europe and other human-dominated regions around the world have transformed from multifunctional landscapes (i.e. providing a diverse set of ecosystem services) to more specialized and uniform landscapes (i.e. providing fewer ecosystem services). Since the widespread loss of ecosystem services can seriously affect human well-being, scientists and intergovernmental organizations have increasingly called for the restoration of multifunctionality at the landscape scale. This again resulted in a growing body of literature on the topic and an uncertainty about what multifunctionality actually is about and how to assess multifunctionality. In this dissertation, the focus is on ecosystem service-based multifunctionality (i.e. the quantification of multifunctionality through ecosystem services). Studies of this field generally examine how different ecosystem services interact, where their overall supply is highest and which factors influence the capacity of a landscape to provide multiple ecosystem services. The consideration of multiple ecosystem services at the landscapes scale specifically enables landscapes and the complex interactions within landscapes to be viewed and studied as socio-ecological systems. The assessment of ecosystem service-based multifunctionality is therefore regarded as an important tool for finding sustainable solutions in landscape management. The overall aim of this dissertation was to enhance and strengthen the concept of multifunctionality from a scientific point of view, and to provide novel conceptual and empirical insights on landscape multifunctionality that are relevant for environmental planning and management. In this dissertation, I have specifically focused on three topics that present challenges for the assessments of ecosystem service-based multifunctionality: 1) overcoming the conceptual and methodological uncertainties related to quantitative multifunctionality assessments, 2) accounting for spatial variability of ecosystem service supplies and 3) differentiating between stakeholders’ perspectives on multifunctionality. Each article of this cumulative dissertation focuses on one of the three challenges: The first article (Chapter 2) presents a quantitative literature review of 101 multifunctionality assessments. Conceptual and methodological differences between ecosystem function- and ecosystem service-based multifunctionality assessments were identified, as well as the most commonly used multifunctionality metrics: threshold approaches, average or sum approaches and diversity indices. The second article (Chapter 3) uses 18 ecosystem service indicators to quantify multifunctionality at the municipality scale (alpha-multifunctionality) and further introduces a new multifunctionality indicator (beta-multifunctionality) that accounts for the unique ecosystem service contributions of municipalities to regional multifunctionality. The results of this article show how multifunctionality at the municipality scale, as well as the unique contributions of municipalities to regional multifunctionality vary across Europe and across different land system archetypes. Finally, the third article (Chapter 4) of this dissertation uses eleven ecosystem service indicators to quantify multifunctionality in two peri-urban landscapes in Europe: the Vereinigte Mulde in Germany and the Kromme Rijn in the Netherlands. By weighting the ecosystem service indicators with stakeholder-derived valuations of the ecosystem services, a differentiation between multifunctionality beneficiaries was achieved. The main contributions of this thesis therefore include an overview of the most recent multifunctionality assessments and the testing of two alternative approaches to assess ecosystem service multifunctionality. By compiling previously used methods and linking them with the most recent conceptual advancements in scope of the literature review, I showed that a clear distinction between studies with an exclusively ecological focus and studies with a more integrated socio-ecological perspective is needed to strengthen the application of the multifunctionality concept. As a follow up on this review, I was able to derive common steps in multifunctionality assessments, as well as recommendations for future studies. In scope of the second and third article, I was able to highlight some specific challenges in current multifunctionality assessments and to test methods that go beyond the common quantification of multifunctionality at single spatial scales or for society as a whole. First of all, my work shows that, due to spatial variability of ecosystem service supplies, the diversity of ecosystem services (alpha-multifunctionality) cannot be maximized in all areas. Accounting for unique ecosystem service supplies (beta-multifunctionality) could thus be more relevant for finding viable land management solutions than assessing ecosystem service hotspots only. This approach is especially applicable, if maximizing (alpha-) multifunctionality is not possible or wanted. Second, maintaining a high diversity of ecosystem services is only meaningful, if the ecosystem services are demanded by society and if no land use conflicts evolve through increased multifunctionality. In my last research paper, I therefore show that accounting for different perspectives of stakeholders on landscape multifunctionality is another crucial aspect for finding viable and sustainable land management solutions. All in all, I conclude that maintaining a high diversity of ecosystem services that relevant to various stakeholders and at spatial scales that allow an implementation of multifunctionality, is important for preventing environmental degradation and for ensuring that society as a whole can benefit from landscape multifunctionality. Quantitative multifunctionality assessments can be used in various ways to answer current research questions in landscape ecology and thus to support the maintenance of ecosystem services in cultural landscapes. However, further development, improvement and applications are needed for multifunctionality assessments to work as strong tools for management and decision-making.

As population increases and urbanization occurs, watershed management will be critical in the protection of water resources in North Central Texas. By 2040, Denton County will nearly double its 2010 population. The Upper Hickory Creek Watershed lies west of Denton and empties into Lake Lewisville. Lake Lewisville provides drinking water for Denton, Dallas, and other neighboring cities. Mitigation of non-point source pollutants as a result of urban and agricultural practices is essential to protecting Lake Lewisville water resources. A common best management practice used to mitigate pollutants is the protection of riparian ecotones that occupy river corridors; however, recent agricultural and urban practices are diminishing these ecosystems and their services. In this paper, the riparian buffer delineation equation (RBDE) is used to assess the current state of Upper Hickory Creek Watershed to aid in the monitoring of the riparian buffers along stream corridors. While the RBDE was used as pre-assessment tool for the riparian buffer effectiveness in the watershed, a new form of the equation was used to evaluate riparian buffer improvement potential (BP) in conjunction with Denton County parcel data to provide insights into buffer effectiveness and identify areas for improvement on a landowner scale.

Ekosystemtjänster är de ekologiska funktioner, egenskaper eller processer som bidrar till att främja människors välbefinnande. Mänsklig aktivitet kan ha negativ påverkan på ekosystemtjänster men genom att integrera ekosystem inom flera samhällssektorer och politiska områden kan det strävas efter att dessa genererar viktiga ekosystemtjänster. I denna uppsats undersöks hur ekosystemtjänster integreras i den fysiska planeringen. I undersökningen har en dokumentanalys genomförts tillsammans med att tjänstemän från tre kommuner samt Länsstyrelsen intervjuats. Uppsatsens teoretiska ramverk utgörs av den socio-ekologiska planeringsteorin samt begreppet ekosystemtjänster. Resultatet visar på att arbetet med att integrera ekosystemtjänster i planeringen är olika inarbetat utifrån varje kommuns egna förutsättningar. Att värna om ekosystemtjänster kan skapa mervärden i samhället. Kunskap och samverkan är något som anses vara viktigt för att skapa förståelse inom ämnet och att i framtiden monetärt värdesätta ekosystemtjänster skulle kunna bidra till en ökad förståelse för vad de bidrar med och vad som skulle kunna gå förlorat. / Ecosystem services are the ecological functions, properties or processes that contribute to promoting human well-being. Human activity can have a negative impact on ecosystem services, but by integrating ecosystems into several sectors of society and policy areas, it can be ensured that these generate important ecosystem services. This essay examines how ecosystem services are integrated into spatial planning today. In the survey, a literature study was conducted together with interviews with officials from three municipalities and the County Administrative Board. The theoretical framework of the thesis consists of the socio-ecological planning theory and the concept of ecosystem services. The results show that the work of integrating ecosystem services into the planning is differently incorporated based on each municipality's own conditions. Protecting ecosystem services can create added value in society. Knowledge and collaboration are considered important for creating understanding within the subject and that in the future monetary valuation of ecosystem services could contribute to an increased understanding of what they contribute and what could be lost.

The focus of this research lies on the possibilities and willingness of accommodation businesses to work for and towards sustainability in a destination. The area of investigation is the municipality of Bad Hindelang located in the German Alps. The so called Ökomodell stands for a collaboration agreement between agriculture and the municipality in order to preserve Bad Hindelang’s ecologically and touristically extremely valuable cultural landscape through continued traditional pasture-based livestock farming. The point of departure for this research is the destination’s goal to bring the accommodation sector on board. Two questions are particularly relevant in this context. First, to what extend do accommodation businesses recognize the Ökomodell’s importance for their own success as tourism stakeholders? And second, what factors influence their willingness to implement appropriate sustainability measures? The approach chosen for this research is mixed methods. Both, qualitative semi-structured expert interviews as well as a quantitative survey have been conducted. The results lay open the perspective of accommodation providers in Bad Hindelang. They have shown to be aware of agriculture being the condition for landscape preservation and thus long-term success in tourism. However, their willingness to contribute by implementing suggested sustainability actions is influenced by a multitude of other factors; above all, the costs and benefits going along as well as their level of engagement and foresight as tourism entrepreneurs.

Expected effects from climate change are increased precipitation and rising temperatures. This in combination with urban densification where green areas are replaced by hard surfaces contributes to a higher risk of floods and heat islands, since green areas provide ecosystem services which disposes local stormwater and has a cooling effect. The aim of this study was to investigate how green roofs and its ecosystem services can contribute to more sustainable cities. This study was conducted by literature data combined with interviews. The result of this study showed that the most important function of green roofs is stormwater management. The space in cities is limited and many functions e.g., infrastructure and buildings should fit in limited surface. The lack of space is a problem to ensure that there are sufficient green spaces that provides ecosystem services. This problem could decrease by using the roofs to a greater extent to ensure ecosystem services in form of e.g., stormwater management. However, the municipalities’ room for maneuver to plan with green roofs showed to be limited by regulations. In conclusion, there is potential to build green roofs to a greater extent as they have many benefits that are useful in urban densification and to counteract negative effects of climate change, e.g., stormwater management and temperature control. The municipal actors would therefore need more room to maneuver to be able to implement green roofs in community planning to a greater extent.

The paper reports on a study of how urban gardening can be implemented in the urban planning for the area, how urban gardening can be used as a tool for a more sustainable city, as well as to understand the role of cafes in encouraging the residents of the Stockholm, both directly and indirectly, to engage in sustainable consumption practices. This project will look at how urban gardening tools can be used within Stockholm to increase sustainable consumption practices. The final outcome, of which, will be a mobile herb garden that travels to different cafes in urban areas of Stockholm, with suggestions as to what could be included in the area to maximize the environmental and economical benefits. Through participatory design approach a range of urban gardening practices has been included in the suggested plans including mobile gardens, community gardens, and growing local foods to maximize the benefits for both the residents and the planet. As a designer and discerning consumers I tried to start to look beyond the pure surface in this project and reveal the potential of urbanization especially by looking closer at “what is” in this case, the impact of cafes can play on encouraging citizens to sustainable consumption and that can be shared as surplus in an urban area in central Stockholm which can be prototyped and be read as a case study to “ what if “.

Oyster reefs provide valuable ecosystemservices that contribute to coastal resilience. Unfortunately, many reefs have been degraded or removed completely, and there are increased efforts to restore oysters in many coastal areas. In particular, much attention has recently been given to the restoration of shellfish reefs along eroding shorelines to reduce erosion. Such fringing reef approaches, however, often lack empirical data to identify locations where reefs are most effective in reducing marsh erosion, or fully take into account habitat suitability. Using monitoring data from 5 separate fringing reef projects across coastal Louisiana, we quantify shoreline exposure (fetch + wind direction + wind speed) and reef impacts on shoreline retreat. Our results indicate that fringing oyster reefs have a higher impact on shoreline retreat at higher exposure shorelines. At higher exposures, fringing reefs reduced marsh edge erosion an average of 1.0 m y-1. Using these data, we identify ranges of shoreline exposure values where oyster reefs are most effective at reducing marsh edge erosion and apply this knowledge to a case study within one Louisiana estuary. In Breton Sound estuary, we calculate shoreline exposure at 500 random points and then overlay a habitat suitability index for oysters. This method and the resulting visualization show areas most likely to support sustainable oyster populations as well as significantly reduce shoreline erosion. Our results demonstrate how site selection criteria, which include shoreline exposure and habitat suitability, are critical to ensuring greater positive impacts and longevity of oyster reef restoration projects.

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Denna kandidatuppsats gör en ansats till att belysa biodiversitetsproblematiken i Sydostasien, som är ett område med mycket hög artrikedom som samtidigt hotas av en intensifierad förlust av arter. Fyra ’biodiversitet hotspots’ omger Sydostasien, vilka indikerar platser med hög artrikedom vilka sammanfaller med hög förlust av habitat. Det största orsaken till förlust av biologisk mångfald i Sydostasien är omvandlingen utav artrika naturtyper till monokulturodlingar, och expansionen av jordbruk och urbana områden. För att undersöka den pågående biodiversitetsforskningen genomfördes en systematisk litteraturanalys av publicerade artiklar från 2010-2019. Vad litteraturanalysen kom fram till var att flera problem, socioekonomiska samt miljöproblem intensifierar varandra, liksom fattigdom och förlust av biologisk mångfald. Internationellt samarbete krävs för att stoppa exploateringen av de värdefulla arter och naturtyper som går förlorade till fördel för den globala handeln med produkter som kommer från området. Medel för att stoppa denna biodiversitetskatastrof måste riktas till forskning och organisationer som arbetar i området. Vi bör genast agera på ett globalt plan för att förhindra förlusten av biodiversitet samt dess tillhörande ekosystemtjänster, detta skulle kunna tacklas genom att vi rör oss ifrån den antropocentriska och emot den ekocentriska natursynen. / This bachelor thesis focuses on the biodiversity loss problematics in Southeast Asia, since it is one of the most species rich places on Earth, coupled with the highest rate of loss of species. Four biodiversity hotspots encompasses Southeast Asia which implies areas of high endemism coupled with high rates habitat loss. This thesis aim to understand what current research in the field focuses on and what ways of protecting biodiversity in the area that exists. The main driver of biodiversity loss in Southeast Asia as well as in the rest of the world, are land-use alterations; forests and natural habitat being converted to monoculture plantations, as well as agricultural- and urban expansions. Through a systematic literature review of scientific material from 2010-2019, the biodiversity research in Southeast Asia is reviewed. What the literature review concluded was that an array of environmental- as well as socioeconomic problems intensifies each other in the area, such as poverty and biodiversity loss. International cooperation to halt biodiversity loss and the global demand for products produced in the area which greatly damages ecosystems needs to be addressed urgently. Actions to halt the mass-extinction of species and their connected ecosystem services needs to be taken by providing means to organizations and to scientists that work in the area and could possibly be addressed by moving from anthropocentrism towards a biocentric nature view.

The emerging bioeconomy in Europe requires the intensification of forestry to meet the market demand for biomass. The policy conflict between increasing production and halting biodiversity loss has fueled debates in Sweden on sustainable forest use and management in recent years. While one side calls for increased production, the other side argues that this strategy jeopardizes environmental goals regarding biodiversity and counteracts sustainable forest management. In this study, a socio-cultural valuation approach was applied to examine perspectives of stakeholders representing environmental and production interests in Östergötland, southern Sweden on forest ecosystem services and sustainable forest management. Based on the values and challenges described by the stakeholders, this study aimed to identify pathways towards sustainable forest management. The results showed a divergence of views on whether intensification compromises environmental goals. While some stakeholders placed a high value on carbon substitution and emphasized the opportunities for sustainable development, other stakeholders were critical of the framing of intensification as sustainable. Despite the disagreements, opportunities were identified that could promote SFM. Possible ways forward include strengthening the resilience of production forests by increasingly adopting continuous cover forestry and mixed forests, redistributing production toward more long-lived forest products, and increasing the share of nature reserves. In addition, compensation funding and education might be viable ways to address conflicts arising from landowner conservation actions. To address conflicting perspectives the results point towards the need to resume dialogue and enable improved communication.