Tools that highlight the human impact on ecosystems and the accelerating depletion of natural resources are essential in the strife towards a more sustainable way of living. Emergy analysis is a scientific and robust method to assess the degree of sustainability of human as well as natural systems. Despite the advantages of the method, its public breakthrough has been slow. One reason could be that the results of an emergy analysis are difficult to grasp. In contrast, ecological footprint is a concept that has a widespread impact, much due to its pedagogical disposition. Ecological footprint made use of the vision to develop a method to well communicate the magnitude of human effect on nature. Another more recently created method suitable in this context is ecosystem services. Ecosystem services as a concept is not yet so well developed methodologically, but its use of mainstream concepts point toward a promising application. The main purpose of this study is to make the emergy analysis and ecosystem services methods more accessible and also to facilitate effective communication of the results from these methods. The second part of the study aims to assess the degree of sustainability ofan agricultural system in central Sweden by means of emergy analysis and ecosystems services. By demonstrating the results of the emergy analysis as a foot- and fingerprint, a better understanding of the outcome may be achieved. The footprint, here called emergy-based footprint, visualizes all resources used in the production system. An emergy-based fingerprint identifies the resources of the most important items in the system. Furthermore, ecosystem services are evaluated from a data matrix and presented by means of a radar diagram. Alternative scenarios for the agricultural system were created in the study, each presented as an emergy-based foot- and fingerprint, as well as by means of a radar diagram to visualize the values of the ecosystem services. Together, these methods demonstrate the sustainability characteristics of the different production systems. Results from this study suggest the agricultural system analysed, as well as the developed scenarios, not to be sustainable. The use of emergy analysis combined with ecosystem services and the visualization methods developed in this study, serve to provide accessible and effective communication methods when aiming to transform agricultural systems towards sustainability. The communication methods developed in this study are alsoapplicable in systems other than agriculture.

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(地球環境学) / 甲第19875号 / 地環博第149号 / 新制||地環||30(附属図書館) / 32911 / 京都大学大学院地球環境学舎地球環境学専攻 / (主査)教授 藤井 滋穂, 教授 岡﨑 健二, 准教授 西前 出 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Global Environmental Studies / Kyoto University / DFAM

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(工学) / 甲第20689号 / 工博第4386号 / 新制||工||1682(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院工学研究科都市環境工学専攻 / (主査)教授 清水 芳久, 教授 田中 宏明, 教授 米田 稔 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Philosophy (Engineering) / Kyoto University / DFAM

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Open space provides a wide range of ecosystem services to communities. In growing communities, open space offers relief from congestion and other negative externalities associated with rapid development. To make effective policy and planning decisions pertaining to open space preservation, it is important to estimate monetary values of its benefits. In addition, assessing public opinions regarding open space provides information on demand and how residents value open space. This study estimated the monetary value of open space in Mississippi and Alabama Gulf Coast communities. The study also collected information on coastal residents’ attitudes towards open space, working waterfronts, and their willingness to support waterfront open space preservation monetarily. Two methodological approaches were employed to estimate the monetary value of waterfront open space: contingent valuation (CVM) and hedonic price (HPM) methods. Data were collected using a mail survey, the Multiple Listing Service (MLS), and publicly available data sources such as the U.S. Census. Data were analyzed using an interval regression, ordinary least squares, and geographically weighted regression (GWR) models. Mail survey results indicated that the majority of residents valued open space and were willing to pay from $80.52 to $162.14 per household as estimated by four different interval-censored econometric models. Respondent’s membership in groups promoting conservation goals, income, age, and residence duration were major factors associated with their willingness to pay. Results from the HPM indicated proximities to waterfronts, with the exception of bayous, were positively related to home prices, suggesting open space produced positive economic benefits. Findings from the HPM analysis using publicly available data were consistent and comparable with the results from the HPM that used MLS data. This similarity of results indicates the use of publicly available data is feasible in HPM analysis, which is important for broad applications of the method during city planning. In addition, GWR estimates provided site specific monetary values of waterfront open space benefits, which will be helpful for policymakers and city planners in developing site-specific conservation and preservation strategies. Findings can help formulate future decisions related to alternative development scenarios of coastal areas and conservation efforts to preserve open space.

Brownfields have the potential to be transformed to offer green infrastructure to cities and bottom up environmental stewardship approaches can be a creative and dynamic way of providing much needed ecosystem services to the urban environment. The following study explores how the transformation of a contaminated site to a community garden in Stockholm can contribute to providing ecosystem services and improving general resilience. Through aqualitative method including literature review, interviews and observations; the results showed elements contributing to resilience including an increase in the diversity of the urban landscape, the creation of a space for social connections, and a gateway to sharing knowledge and creating polycentricity in natural resource management. / Förorenade områden kan potentiellt omformas för att erbjuda grön infrastruktur till städer och miljöförvaltning kan vara ett kreativt och dynamiskt sätt att tillhandahålla välbehövliga ekosystemtjänster till stadsmiljön. Denna studie utforskar hur omvandlingen av ett förorenat område till en stadsodling i Stockholm kan bidra till att skapa ekosystemtjänster och ökan resiliens i samhället. Genom användningen av kvalitativa metoder – såsom en litteraturstudie, intervjuer och observationer – visar resultaten på en ökad resiliens genom ökad mångfald i landskapet, skapandet av plats för sociala förbindelser, ökad kunskap om ekosystemtjänster samt polycentricitet inom naturresurshantering.

Ljudet av surrande insekter har blivit mer sällsynt på senare år och det finns en risk att det kommer bli en betydlig minskning av det i framtiden. Det menar i alla fall oroande forskarrapporter. En stor del av insekterna kan var utrotningshotade och det innebär i sin tur en risk för hela ekosystemet. Ekosystemtjänsterna kopplade till det svenska jordbruket från pollinerare är försörjande och reglerande. Kulturella tjänster från pollinerare finns också, i form av friluftsliv och bärplockning bland annat. Några viktiga pollinerare i Sverige är steklar och mer specifikt humlor och bin. Av de 299 vilda biarterna i Sverige är en tredjedel hotade. Jordbruket är i behov av pollinering för de grödor där självpollinering inte kan ske, dessa är till stor del frukt och grönsaker men även raps. Raps är till viss del självpollinerande, forskningen pekar på att skörden mognar jämnare och avkastningen blir bättre vid en högre närvaro av pollinerare. Detta är av stor vikt för att det ska vara lönsamt att bedriva jordbruksverksamhet därför bör dessa värna om denna ekosystemtjänst som pollinerare bidrar till. Denna rapport tar upp situationen för pollinerare i Sverige och hur de bidrar till olika ekosystemtjänster, fokus ligger på rödlistade arter och dess hot och problematik. Hur närvaron av pollinerare påverkar skörden och avkastningen av raps undersöks för att försöka uppskatta det ekonomiska värdet av pollinerare. En mindre fallstudie genomfördes för att vidare se hur förutsättningarna ser ut för pollinerare i ett begränsat område. En litteraturstudie har legat som grund för denna studie och har begränsats till den data som finns. För pollinerare har det funnits information om steklar (humlor och bin), en geografiskbegränsning till Öland och ett område utanför Gårdby gjordes. I fallstudien framkom det att observationerna av pollinerare skedde sporadiskt och att det finns kunskapsluckor i det valda området. Därför är det viktigt att vidare öka intresset och kunskapen om hur människor varje dag påverkar och nyttjar ekosystemtjänster från pollinerare. Hoten och problematiken identifieras ett av dem var förändrad markanvändning, i form av att förutsättningarna för att överleva inte längre är de samma. Det kan ta sig formen av ett intensifierat jordbruk där tillgången på en varierad föda inte längre finns men också att boplatser växer igen. En lösning till den hastiga förändringar i markanvändningen är att odla mer ekologiskt och ta tillvara på de naturliga områden då de bidrar till en hög biodiversitet. Detta motverkar även intensifieringen av jordbruket som idag går mot att bestå av stora monokulturer. Det andra hotet var insektsmedel generellt, då det har visats att det kan ha en negativ påverkan på pollinerare då främst på deras larver och ägg. Därtill är rekommendationerna för produkttester väldigt korta vilket resulterar i att de fullständiga effekterna alltid syns. Problematiken med insektsmedel har två lösning, en där odling i större utsträckning sker ekologiskt och att genomföra längre tester. Övriga potentiella hot är den överhängande klimatförändringen, sker det en snabb förändring förändras förutsättningarna drastiskt. Även inplantering av odlade pollinerare kan potentiellt vara ett hot då de kan konkurrera ut de vilda pollinerarna. / The sound of buzzing insects have become more scarce in the last several years and there is an overhanging risk that There will be a major decrees of them in the future. There is some scientific research that claims so, and that is worrying. A big part of the insects could be endangered and that would mean that the existence of ecosystems is at great risk. Farming in Sweden relies on several ecosystem services from pollinators, mainly provisioning and regulating. There are some cultural services from pollinators as well, that mostly affects outdoor life and the picking of berries among others. Some of the important pollinators are bumblebees and bees. Out of the 299 wild species that live in Sweden a third is threatened. Farmers are in need of pollination of the crops that don't self-pollinate, these crops are mainly fruit and vegetables but also oilseed rape. Oilseed rape is to some extent self-pollinating, but research shows that the yield ripens more evenly and the turnover of the crop is increased by a higher level of presence in the field by pollinators. This is of great interest for the farmers to make their business profitable, therefore they should work to preserve the ecosystem services that pollinators contribute with. This report attends the situation of pollinators in Sweden and how they contribute to ecosystem services, it's focused on red-listed species and their threats and problems. Also how the presence of pollinators affects the yield of rapeseed oil is investigated to try to estimate the value of pollinators. A smaller case study was conducted to further see how the conditions for pollinators are in a limited area. A literature study has laid the path for this study and it has been limited to the data available. for pollinators information about bees and bumblebees have been available, and a geographic limitation to Öland and to an area outside Gårdby was made. A small case study was conducted to further show the condition of pollinators in a limited area. It was shown that the observations of pollinators were sporadically conducted and there was a lack of knowledge in the chosen area. Therefore it's important to further increase the interest and knowledge about how humans affects and uses the ecosystem services from pollinators every day. The identified threats was a change in land use, to such an extent that it affects the conditions of surviving. It could be caused by intensified farming were the access to sufficient food is no longer available to pollinators. Increased land use changes the natural habitats where pollinators build their nests, either because they overgrow or they are exploited to uninhabitable ground. A solution to this is ecological farming where natural regions contribute to a greater biodiversity in the landscape are seen as a resource and preserved. The increased intensification of farming land will decrease if a large part of the farming is done ecologically. The second threat was pesticides in general, it has been shown that it could have a negative impact on pollinators, and mostly the larva’s and eggs. In addition to that, the recommendation on how long to test for the effects of a pesticide is very short. These problems with pesticides have two solutions, one was an increase in ecological farming and also to conduct longer test periods for pesticides. Other potential threats that were identifies was the overhanging climate change, conditions would drastically change. A presence of domesticated pollinators could be rival to native pollinators and lead to a decrease of native pollinators.

Grazing by large herbivores has the potential to provide multiple ecosystem services, depending on multiple factors. Through a range of interdisciplinary methods, including literature reviews, case studies, and semi-structured interviews, I seek to assess how grazing can contribute to sustainable landscape management, as well as how sustainable practices can be incentivised. In chapter one, I focus on the role of grazing in wildfire prevention. Through a systematic literature review, I uncover new insights into the effectiveness of large herbivores in mitigating wildfires. I find that large herbivores can reduce wildfire frequency by promoting grass-dominated landscapes and reduce fire intensity by consuming vegetation and creating landscape features that reduce fuel loads. However, the effectiveness of large herbivores depends on the type of vegetation and diet preferences of the animals, and management practices associated with livestock grazing can also influence fire ignition. In chapter two, I investigate the relationship between grazing management and ecosystem services through a literature review, focusing on synergies and trade-offs between them. I identify management practices that are beneficial to multiple ecosystem services as well as policy mechanisms that can incentivise them. In the third chapter, I use case studies to investigate the role of domestic animals in rewilding projects. I describe how domestic and semi-wild herbivores can contribute to rewilding projects and make them more inclusive for rural and indigenous communities. In the fourth chapter, I aim to identify the challenges faced by land users in performing sustainable grazing management through semi-structured interviews with 88 land users from eight case studies in Europe. I gain insights into land users' determinants of behaviour towards sustainable grazing practices using the Behaviour Change Wheel framework. Overall I suggest that grazing can be a potential solution to the challenges of the Anthropocene, but only when done in the right way. I emphasize the importance of an interdisciplinary approach in grazing research and considering socio-ecological systems. I also highlight the potential of rewilding and semi-wild grazing systems especially in areas undergoing land abandonment. The results imply a shift in meat production and consumption and potential new pathways for human-livestock relations. Finally, agricultural policies such as the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) can play a crucial role in incentivizing sustainable grazing management and should be improved to support extensive grazing and extensification.:Table of Contents i. General Introduction 6 i.i Context 7 i.i.i European grazed landscapes can provide high biodiversity and supply various ecosystem services 7 i.i.ii Challenges for European grazed systems 9 i.ii Thesis methods and outline 13 i.ii.i Literature reviews (chapters 1 & 2) 13 i.ii.ii Case studies (chapters 3 and 4) 13 i.ii.iii General approach and methodological considerations 18 i.ii.iv Research aims and questions 18 i.ii.v Thesis outline 19 i.iii Graphical abstract 21 1. Chapter One 22 1.1 Introduction 23 1.2 Literature search 25 1.3 Overall effects of herbivores on wildfire risks 26 1.3.1 Effects of herbivores on wildfire frequency 26 1.3.2 Effects of herbivores on fire intensity or severity 30 1.4 Effects of herbivores on fuel loads and fire hazard 30 1.5 Effects of vegetation characteristics on fire regimes 33 1.6 Effects of grazing-associated management on wildfires 33 1.7 Implications for management 34 1.8 Implications for policy 36 1.9 Conclusions and future challenges 37 2. Chapter Two 38 2.1 Introduction 39 2.2 Literature review: general methods 42 2.3 Results 44 2.3.1 Effects of grazing on biodiversity 44 2.3.2 Effects of grazing on climate change and its mitigation 46 2.3.3 Effects of grazing on soil quality 48 2.3.4 Effects of grazing on wildfire mitigation 49 2.3.5 Effects of grazing on cultural ecosystem services 51 2.3.6 Synergies and Trade-offs of different grazing practices and ecosystem services 52 2.3.7 Recommendations: optimizing ecosystem multifunctionality in grazed systems 55 2.4 Outlook 59 3. Chapter Three 60 3.1 Introduction 61 3.2 The Broader Theory of Rewilding and Potential Role for Livestock 64 3.2.1 Stochastic Disturbance Regimes 64 3.2.2 Trophic Complexity 65 3.2.3 Interacting Processes 66 3.3 General Case Studies 67 3.3.1 Reindeer Engineer in Swedish Lapland 67 3.3.2 Livestock Fire Brigade and Free Running Horses in the Côa Valley, Portugal 68 3.3.3 Ecotourism and Sustainable Meat at Knepp Estate, England 70 3.3.4 Oostvaardersplassen: The “Wild Experiment” 71 3.4 Conclusions 73 4. Chapter Four 77 4.1 Introduction 78 4.2 Methods 80 4.2.1 Interviews 80 4.3 Findings from interviews: Determinants of sustainable grazing decisions 81 4.3.1 Physical capability: the impact of the ‘rural exodus’ 81 4.3.2 Psychological capability: access to knowledge and understanding of administrative rules influences how land users conduct their management 82 4.3.3 Physical opportunity 83 4.3.4 Social opportunities 85 4.3.5 Motivation 85 4.4 Discussion 87 4.4.1 Intervention functions to support sustainable grazing, and associated policies 88 4.5 Conclusions and outlook 92 5. Discussion 93 5.1 Importance of the scientific, social and political context of the research 93 5.2 Societal relevance of the thesis 93 5.3 Policy relevance of grazing research 94 5.4 The value of transdisciplinary research 94 5.5 Contribution of the research 95 5.5.1 Contribution of chapter 1: large herbivores and wildfire mitigation 95 5.5.2 Contribution of chapter 2: grazing and multiple ecosystem services, trade-offs and synergies in a European context 96 5.5.3 Contribution of chapter 3: domestic livestock and rewilding 97 5.5.4 Contribution of chapter 4: drivers of decision making for sustainable grazing 98 5.5.5 Interdisciplinary approach to grazing research, grazing areas as socio-ecological systems 99 5.6 Limitations 100 5.6.1 The framework of ecosystem services 100 5.6.2 Limitations to rewilding research 101 5.6.3 The challenge of addressing different socioecological and administrative scales 101 5.6.4 Practical limitations 103 6. Outlook 104 6.1 Future research needs 104 6.2 Pathways for sustainable grazing 104 7. Conclusion 107 References 110 Summary 135 Zusammenfassung 139 Appendix 143 Appendix Chapter One 144 Appendix Chapter Two 145 Appendix Chapter Four 149 Acknowledgements 153 Author contribution statement 155

When precipitation increases as a result of climate change during certain periods, demands are placed on how cities can cope with the increased handling of stormwater, rainwater and meltwater runoff. Umeå is a city with the vision of reaching 200,000 inhabitants by the year 2050 and that growth must be managed with ecological, economic, social and cultural sustainability. In a growing city, it is therefore important to include stormwater management as a central part of planning. This study aims to describe and analyze how the municipality of Umeå works towards a sustainable stormwater management. This will be done with the methods of document analysis and field studies.