The production of magnetic materials is of great interest for use in the micro-fabrication industry. In particular, Permalloy (Ni80Fe20) is used in the production of micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) due to its favourable magnetic properties (high relative permeability, low coercivity and high magnetic saturation). This leads to applications in devices such as inductors, transformers and micro-actuators. The electrodeposition of NiFe is also of fundamental electrochemical interest, as there is anomalous thermodynamic behaviour, with the less noble (iron) metal depositing preferentially to the more noble (nickel) metal. To enable consistent alloy deposition nickel and nickel-iron baths are currently almost exclusively based on boric acid. Boric acid has an important role in the deposition of NiFe films but its role(s) in the electro-deposition mechanism is (are) not wholly understood. Recently (2011) boric acid has been identified as a “substance of very high concern” based on the criteria established by EU chemical regulation, REACH. In anticipation of increased regulation an alternative was sought to provide a benign alternative to boric acid in the NiFe plating bath suitable for use in micro-fabrication. Initial work was performed to benchmark the performance of existing boric acid based electro-deposition baths. Cyclic voltammetry was performed, which demonstrated the deposition of nickel and nickel-iron from boric acid baths. Coulombic efficiencies up to 93 % were measured for the deposition of nickel using the electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance (EQCM) on platinum electrodes. For nickel-iron deposition control of the film composition was demonstrated on copper electrodes through varying the iron (II) concentration, current density and temperature. A citrate bath for the deposition of nickel-iron was then developed and characterised. Cyclic voltammetry was performed in these citrate baths demonstrating the deposition of nickel and nickel-iron. Optimal conditions for depositing Ni80Fe20 were demonstrated to be an elevated temperature (60 °C) with a current density of 20 mA cm-2 and a pH of 3. Using the EQCM the efficiency for nickel deposition was measured to be > 80 %. The effects of sodium saccharin and sodium dodecyl sulfate as additives were investigated; these were shown to influence morphology but not the coulombic efficiency. Decreasing the pH was shown to lower the efficiency of nickel deposition from the citrate bath. Comparisons of key properties were made between NiFe films deposited from a boric acid bath and the citrate bath developed in this work. Test structures were used to compare the strain in the films; no significant difference was found. For 2.2 μm thick Ni80Fe20 films the sheet resistance was measured using Greek cross structures as 0.078 ± 0.004 Ω/square for films deposited from the boric acid bath and 0.090 ± 0.006 Ω/square from the citrate bath. The magnetic saturation, Ms, was measured as 895 ± 66 emu cm-3 for deposits from the boric acid bath and 923 ± 111 emu cm-3 from the citrate bath. These again show no significant difference in these values within experimental error. Coercivities for these films were measured to be between 20 and 120 A m-1. In combination, this work demonstrates the development and characterisation of a new citrate based electrodeposition bath for nickel and nickel-iron. Similar chemical, electrical, mechanical and magnetic properties were found from films deposited from both baths, thus demonstrating the suitability of the citrate bath for the deposition of nickel-iron films in microfabrication.

Microsistemas eletrotermomecânicos (ETM) são sistemas em escalas micrométricas que operam baseados na deformação por efeito termoelástico, induzida pelo aquecimento da sua estrutura devido a uma corrente elétrica. Já que é desejável que a sua resposta transiente seja rápida, amortecida e estável ao alcançar equilíbrio e, além disso, conhecendo o fato de que o fenômeno térmico é o mais lento entre os diferentes domínios físicos envolvidos nos microsistemas ETM, faz-se necessário minimizar o tempo de resposta nesse domínio com o fim de melhorar o desempenho do sistema. Isso pode ser obtido pela mudança da sua topologia estrutural. Assim, neste trabalho de mestrado, o Método de Otimização Topológica (MOT) é aplicado no projeto de microsistemas ETM levando em conta a resposta térmica transiente de forma a reduzir o seu tempo de resposta e maximizar o seu deslocamento de saída. O MOT combina técnicas de otimização com o Método de Elementos Finitos (MEF) para distribuir material em um domínio de projeto fixo com o objetivo de extremizar uma função de custo sujeita às restrições inerentes do problema. A modelagem dos microsistemas ETM é obtida resolvendo-se as equações de equilíbrio utilizando o MEF linear com base em elementos de quatro nós isoparamétricos sem considerar dependência das propriedades do material com a temperatura. O problema elétrico é resolvido com uma análise de correntes estacionárias, já no problema transiente térmico, a distribuição de temperatura é uma função variável no tempo. No domínio elástico, a massa e os efeitos de amortecimento são negligenciados, assim, o problema torna-se quase-estático. Na formulação da Otimização Topológica o modelo de material é baseado no método das densidades ou \"Solid Isotropic Microstructure with Penalization\" (SIMP) combinado com um filtro de sensibilidade e duas funções de penalização como técnicas de controle da solução para reduzir os problemas de instabilidades numéricas intrínsecas ao MOT. Os fatores de penalização do SIMP são obtidos mediante um enfoque analítico. A Programação Linear Seqüencial (PLS) e o Método das Assíntotas Móveis ou \"Method of Moving Asymptotes\" (MMA) são usados para resolver o problema de otimização não-linear. Resultados bidimensionais são apresentados com o intuito de ilustrar o método. Além disso, as topologias finais são obtidas mediante um algoritmo de interpretação de forma e os resultados da otimização dinâmica são confrontados com os obtidos por um enfoque estático, que foi implementado somente para fins comparativos. / Electrothermomechanical (ETM) microsystems are systems in micrometric scale which operate based on thermoelastic effect deformation induced by heating the structure by means of an electrical current. Since a fast, damped and stable (at steady state) transient response is desirable with the aim of improving ETM efficiency, it is necessary to minimize the response time of the thermal effect which is the slowest phenomena among different physics involved in the ETM microsystems. This can be achieved by changing the ETM structural topology. Thus, in this work, the Topology Optimization Method (TOM) is applied to ETM microsystems design, taking into account transient thermal response in order to reduce their response time and to maximize their output displacement. The TOM combines optimization techniques with the finite element method (FEM) to distribute material in a fixed design domain in order to extremize a cost function subjected to some inherent constraints of the problem. The modeling of ETM microsystems is obtained by solving the governing equations using the linear FEM based on four-node isoparametric elements. Non-temperature dependent material properties are considered in the finite element models. The electrical problem is solved by considering a steady current static analysis; the transient state thermal problem considers a temperature distribution that varies over time. In the elastic domain, the mass and the damping effects are neglected, thus, resulting in a quasi-static problem. In the Topology Optimization formulation the material model is based on the Solid Isotropic Microstructure with Penalization (SIMP) model combined with a sensitivity filter and two penalty functions as solution control techniques to reduce mesh dependence and checkerboard problems intrinsic to the TOM. The penalty factors in SIMP are obtained through an analytical approach. Sequential Linear Programming (SLP) and Method of Moving Asymptotes (MMA) are used for solving the non-linear optimization problem. Two-dimensional results are presented to illustrate the method. Moreover, the final topologies are obtained by a shape interpretation algorithm and the dynamic optimization result is compared with steady-state optimization, which is implemented for comparative purposes.

Στην παρούσα διπλωματική εργασία εκπονείται μελέτη που αφορά την παθητικότητα και τον έλεγχο ηλεκτρομηχανικών συστημάτων. Δίνεται μεγαλύτερη βαρύτητα στον επαγωγικό κινητήρα και τους ελέγχους που μπορεί να εφαρμοστούν σε αυτόν. Η επαγωγική μηχανή χρησιμοποιείται σε μεγάλο εύρος εφαρμογών στο πεδίο μετατροπής της ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας σε μηχανικό έργο. Οι αιτίες για αυτήν την προτίμηση είναι πολλές. Μεταξύ αυτών συγκαταλέγονται το φτηνό κόστος και η εύκολη συντήρηση. Για πιο απαιτητικές εφαρμογές όμως η επαγωγική μηχανή απαιτεί πολύπλοκα συστήματα τροφοδοσίας και ελέγχου. Χρησιμοποιούνται πηγές τάσης (ή ρεύματος) βασισμένες σε τοπολογίες που περιλαμβάνουν διατάξεις με ηλεκτρονικά ισχύος όπως μετατροπείς ac/dc με IGBT διακοπτικά στοιχεία ισχύος. Ο έλεγχος επίσης μπορεί να βασίζεται είτε σε απλές βαθμωτές λογικές ή σε πιο προχωρημένα συστήματα σε λογικές διανυσματικού ελέγχου. Στις περιπτώσεις αυτές μπορούμε να επιτύχουμε εξαιρετικά λειτουργικά χαρακτηριστικά όπως ρύθμιση στροφών ή θέσης με υψηλή ακρίβεια αλλά με κόστος την πολυπλοκότητα στην δομή του συστήματος ισχύος και αυτομάτου ελέγχου. Στην παρούσα διπλωματική εργασία, αρχικά μελετάμε τη δυναμική συμπεριφορά τριφασικής ασύγχρονης μηχανής με χρήση του αναλυτικού μη γραμμικού μοντέλου της. Συγκεκριμένα, για την μελέτη της μεταβατικής συμπεριφοράς χρησιμοποιούμε το μετασχηματισμένο μοντέλο της μηχανής στο σύστημα κάθετων αξόνων d-q. Αυτό επιτυγχάνεται με την χρήση του μετασχηματισμού Park, στο τριφασικό αρχικό μοντέλο της μηχανής. Η επιλογή του συστήματος κάθετων αξόνων γίνεται στο στρεφόμενο με σύγχρονη ταχύτητα σύστημα αναφοράς. Στο σύστημα αυτό οι ημιτονοειδείς ποσότητες των μεταβλητών στην μόνιμη κατάσταση λειτουργίας μετατρέπονται σε συνεχείς (dc) μεταβλητές, πράγμα που διευκολύνει την ανάλυση και σχεδίαση του ελέγχου. Με στόχο την εφαρμογή απλών σχημάτων ελέγχου στην επαγωγική μηχανή που να μπορούν να οδηγούν σε λειτουργία υπό επιθυμητό αριθμό στροφών ανεξάρτητα προς το εμφανιζόμενο στην έξοδο μηχανικό φορτίο, χρησιμοποιούμε το μοντέλο αυτό στην ανάλυσή μας και αποδεικνύουμε ότι η επαγωγική μηχανή έχει την σημαντική ιδιότητα των Euler-Lagrange ηλεκτρομηχανικών συστημάτων, την παθητικότητα. Αυτό σημαίνει ότι μετά από κάποια διαταραχή, το σύστημά μας έχει απόσβεση τόσο στο ηλεκτρικό όσο και στο μηχανικό του μέρος. Επιπλέον, αποδεικνύεται ότι η ιδιότητα αυτή παραμένει ισχύουσα ανεξάρτητα με το όποιο σχήμα μη δυναμικού ελέγχου μπορούμε να εφαρμόσουμε. Έτσι, στην παρούσα διπλωματική εργασία εφαρμόζουμε απλούς PI ελεγκτές με σταθερά χρόνου πολύ μεγαλύτερη από αυτήν που εμφανίζει το αρχικό σύστημα, ούτως ώστε η δυναμική των PI ελεγκτών πρακτικά να μην εμπλέκεται με την δυναμική του συστήματος. Έτσι, το σύστημα παραμένει ουσιαστικά στην αρχική δυναμική του κατάσταση με την ιδιότητα της παθητικότητας ισχύουσα για τον προτεινόμενο έλεγχο που από την πλευρά της μηχανής φαίνεται πρακτικά στατικός. Εν συνεχεία, προσομοιώνουμε το σύστημα και επιβεβαιώνουμε ότι οι προτεινόμενοι απλοί PI ελεγκτές μπορούν να οδηγήσουν το σύστημα στην επιθυμητή κατάσταση λειτουργίας με επιθυμητό αριθμό στροφών. / This diploma thesis forms a study on passivity and control of electromechanical systems. We focus on induction machine and the methods we use to control it. Induction machine is used in a large range of applications especially in the field of energy conversion to mechanical work. There are many causes for this preference such as low cost and easy to preserve. For more demanding applications induction machine needs complicated supply sources and control systems. Voltage (or current) sources are used based on power electronics such as ac/dc converters with IGBT switching elements. The control used can be scalar in simple applications or vector control in advanced applications. By using vector control, we can achieve exceptional operational characteristics on velocity or position regulation with high precision but with huge complexity in the structure of the power system and the automatic control scheme. In this thesis, at first we study the dynamic performance of the 3-phase induction machine by using the precise non-linear model. Specifically. we use the transformed model of the induction machine on the dq axes system to study its dynamical performance. This can be achieved by using Park transformation on the initial 3-phase model of the machine. The choice we make on the dq axis is based on the synchronously rotating reference frame. In this system the sinusoidal quantities of the variables in steady state are converted to dc, helping us on the analysis and the design of the control. Our goal is the application of simple control shapes on the induction machine that can drive our system to the desirable velocity regardless the output of the mechanical load. To this end, in our analysis we first prove that the induction machine has the significant property of passivity, a fundamental property of Euler-Lagrange systems. This means that after a disturbance, our system has damping in both the mechanical and the electrical part. Moreover, it is proved that passivity is maintained regardless from the form of any non dynamic control scheme we may apply. So, in this thesis we use simple PI controllers with large time constant in order to avoid any influence between the dynamics of the PI controllers and the dynamic of our system. So the system maintains its initial dynamic property of passivity under the control we use. Afterwards, we simulate the system and we confirm that the PI controllers we use can drive the system to the desirable operational mode.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:22:34Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2011-06-27Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T20:29:07Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 bassinello_dg_me_bauru.pdf: 2448194 bytes, checksum: 911c482b9ecfe0c957b2b1eeca0bdacf (MD5) / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP) / Neste trabalho é realizada a análise do comportamento dinâmico não linear, caótico e controle, de um sistema macro eletromecânico e um sistema micro eletromecânico, e esta dividida em duas partes: A primeira parte desta dissertação trata - se de um sistema eletromecânico de 2º ordem com um único grau de liberdade em escala macro. Tal sistema é constituído de um oscilador mecânico composto de massa, mola não linear e amortecedor acolplado a um circuito elétrico, este composto uma resistência em série com um atuador capacitivo e um magnésio variável. O objetivo desta análise é estudar o comportamento dinâmico do modelo eletromecânico em estado de equilíbrio, e verificar como as simplificaçõs das não linearidades podem alterar a resposta do sistema. São aplicadas dua técnicas de controle ativo o controle linear feedback e o controle utilizado a equação de Riccati dependente do estado, como ferramenta para obter as oscilações em uma órbita periódica desejada, e com a finalidade de realizar uma comparação entre a eficiência destes dois métodos, para este sistema. Na segunda parte é analisado o comportamento dinâmico de um sistema micro MEMS, representado por um micro-acelerômetro moderado por uma equação diferencial não-linear de segunda ordem. Este sistema considera duas placas fixas e uma placa móvel entre elas, a qual é aplicada uma tensão V (t), tais placas têm as funções de fornecer eletrodos para formar um capacitor e armazenar energia elétrica, e de fornecer elasticidade ou rigidez mecânica. Os resultados são obtidos através de simulações numéricas, sendo possível observar que para uma determinada faixa de parâmetros utilizados o sistema apresenta um comportamento indesejável. Através do uso da técnica do controle ótimo foi possível levar o sistema a uma orbita periódica desejada / This work presented analysis of the dynamic behavior of nonlinear and chaotic control, of electromechanical systems in macro and micro scales, and is divided into two parts. The first part of this work is an electromechanical system in macro scale of second order with of a single degree of freedom. This system consists of mechanical oscillator consisting of mass, spring nonlinear and damper, coupled to an electric circuit, this compound a resistence in series with a capacitive actuator and a magnetic variable. The purpose of this analysis is to study the dynamic behavior of electromechanical model in equilibrium, and see how the simplifications of nonlinearities can change the system response. Two techniques are applied to active control, linear feedback control, and control using the Riccati equation sate-dependent, as a tool for the oscillations in a disired periodic orbit, and with the purpose to make a comparison between the effectiveness of two methods for this system. In the second part we analyze the dynamic behavior of a micro electromechanical system MEMS, represented by a micro-accelerometer is modeled by a nonlinear differential equation of second order. This system takes two fixed plates and a movable plate between them, which is applied a voltage V (t), such boards have the function of providing electrodes to form a capacitor or store electrical energy, and providing mechanical stiffness or elasticity. Results are obtained through numerical simulations. As can be seen that for a certain range of parameters the sytem presents an undesirable behavior. Through the using the technique of optimal control could case the sysstem to a desired periodic orbit. For the system with dimensionless parameters one can observe a chaotic behavior. As in general it is not possible to obtain exact analytical solutions to equations, sought an approximate solution obtained by the method of perturbation, the (Method of Multiple Scales)

Microsistemas eletrotermomecânicos (ETM) são sistemas em escalas micrométricas que operam baseados na deformação por efeito termoelástico, induzida pelo aquecimento da sua estrutura devido a uma corrente elétrica. Já que é desejável que a sua resposta transiente seja rápida, amortecida e estável ao alcançar equilíbrio e, além disso, conhecendo o fato de que o fenômeno térmico é o mais lento entre os diferentes domínios físicos envolvidos nos microsistemas ETM, faz-se necessário minimizar o tempo de resposta nesse domínio com o fim de melhorar o desempenho do sistema. Isso pode ser obtido pela mudança da sua topologia estrutural. Assim, neste trabalho de mestrado, o Método de Otimização Topológica (MOT) é aplicado no projeto de microsistemas ETM levando em conta a resposta térmica transiente de forma a reduzir o seu tempo de resposta e maximizar o seu deslocamento de saída. O MOT combina técnicas de otimização com o Método de Elementos Finitos (MEF) para distribuir material em um domínio de projeto fixo com o objetivo de extremizar uma função de custo sujeita às restrições inerentes do problema. A modelagem dos microsistemas ETM é obtida resolvendo-se as equações de equilíbrio utilizando o MEF linear com base em elementos de quatro nós isoparamétricos sem considerar dependência das propriedades do material com a temperatura. O problema elétrico é resolvido com uma análise de correntes estacionárias, já no problema transiente térmico, a distribuição de temperatura é uma função variável no tempo. No domínio elástico, a massa e os efeitos de amortecimento são negligenciados, assim, o problema torna-se quase-estático. Na formulação da Otimização Topológica o modelo de material é baseado no método das densidades ou \"Solid Isotropic Microstructure with Penalization\" (SIMP) combinado com um filtro de sensibilidade e duas funções de penalização como técnicas de controle da solução para reduzir os problemas de instabilidades numéricas intrínsecas ao MOT. Os fatores de penalização do SIMP são obtidos mediante um enfoque analítico. A Programação Linear Seqüencial (PLS) e o Método das Assíntotas Móveis ou \"Method of Moving Asymptotes\" (MMA) são usados para resolver o problema de otimização não-linear. Resultados bidimensionais são apresentados com o intuito de ilustrar o método. Além disso, as topologias finais são obtidas mediante um algoritmo de interpretação de forma e os resultados da otimização dinâmica são confrontados com os obtidos por um enfoque estático, que foi implementado somente para fins comparativos. / Electrothermomechanical (ETM) microsystems are systems in micrometric scale which operate based on thermoelastic effect deformation induced by heating the structure by means of an electrical current. Since a fast, damped and stable (at steady state) transient response is desirable with the aim of improving ETM efficiency, it is necessary to minimize the response time of the thermal effect which is the slowest phenomena among different physics involved in the ETM microsystems. This can be achieved by changing the ETM structural topology. Thus, in this work, the Topology Optimization Method (TOM) is applied to ETM microsystems design, taking into account transient thermal response in order to reduce their response time and to maximize their output displacement. The TOM combines optimization techniques with the finite element method (FEM) to distribute material in a fixed design domain in order to extremize a cost function subjected to some inherent constraints of the problem. The modeling of ETM microsystems is obtained by solving the governing equations using the linear FEM based on four-node isoparametric elements. Non-temperature dependent material properties are considered in the finite element models. The electrical problem is solved by considering a steady current static analysis; the transient state thermal problem considers a temperature distribution that varies over time. In the elastic domain, the mass and the damping effects are neglected, thus, resulting in a quasi-static problem. In the Topology Optimization formulation the material model is based on the Solid Isotropic Microstructure with Penalization (SIMP) model combined with a sensitivity filter and two penalty functions as solution control techniques to reduce mesh dependence and checkerboard problems intrinsic to the TOM. The penalty factors in SIMP are obtained through an analytical approach. Sequential Linear Programming (SLP) and Method of Moving Asymptotes (MMA) are used for solving the non-linear optimization problem. Two-dimensional results are presented to illustrate the method. Moreover, the final topologies are obtained by a shape interpretation algorithm and the dynamic optimization result is compared with steady-state optimization, which is implemented for comparative purposes.

No description available.

Thin film material properties and measurement characterisation techniques are crucial for the development of micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) devices. Furthermore, as the technology scales down from microtechnology towards nanotechnology, nanoscale materials such as carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are required in electronic devices to overcome the limitations encountered by conventional materials at the nanoscale. The integration of CNTs into micro-electronics and material applications is expected to provide a wide range of new applications. The work presented in this thesis has contributed to the development of thin film material characterisation through research on the thermal conductivity measurement and the control of the residual stress of thin film materials used commonly in MEMS devices. In addition, the use of CNTs in micro-electronics and as filler reinforcement in composite materials applications have been investigated, leading to low resistivity CNTs interconnects and CNTs-Polyimide (PI) composites based resistive humidity sensors. In the first part of this thesis, the thermal conductivity of conductive thin films as well as the control of the residual stress arising from fabrication process in PI micro-cantilevers have been studied. A MEMS device has been developed for the thermal conductivity characterisation of conductive thin films showing good agreement with thermal conductivity of bulk material. Low energy Ar+ ion bombardment in a plasma has been used to control the residual stress present in PI cantilevers. Appropriate ion energy and exposure time have led to stress relaxation of the beams resulting in a straight PI cantilever beam. In the second part of this thesis, low resistivity CNTs interconnects have been developed using both dielectrophoresis (DEP) and Focused Ion Beam (FIB) techniques. An investigation of the effects of CNT concentration, applied voltage and frequency on the CNTs alignment between Al and Ti electrodes has resulted in the lowering of the CNTs’ resistance. The deposition of Pt contact using FIB at the CNTs-metal electrodes interface has been found to decrease the high contact resistances of the devices by four and two orders of magnitude for Al and Ti electrodes respectively. The last part of this thesis focuses on the preparation of CNTs-PI composite materials, its characterisation and its application as resistive humidity sensor. The integration of CNTs inside the PI matrix has resulted in enhancing significantly the electrical and mechanical properties of the composites. In particular, a DEP technique employed to induce CNTs alignment inside the PI matrix during curing has been attributed to play an important role in improving the composite properties and lowering the percolation threshold. In addition, the fabrication and testing of CNTs-PI resistive humidity sensors have been carried out. The sensing performance of the devices have shown to be dependent highly on the CNT concentration. Finally, the alignment of CNTs by DEP has improved the sensing properties of CNTs-PI humidity sensors and confirmed that the change of resistance in response to humidity is governed by the change of the CNTs’ resistances due to charge transfer from the water molecules to the CNTs.

abstract: ABSTRACT This work seeks to develop a practical solution for short range ultrasonic communications and produce an integrated array of acoustic transmitters on a flexible substrate. This is done using flexible thin film transistor (TFT) and micro electromechanical systems (MEMS). The goal is to develop a flexible system capable of communicating in the ultrasonic frequency range at a distance of 10 - 100 meters. This requires a great deal of innovation on the part of the FDC team developing the TFT driving circuitry and the MEMS team adapting the technology for fabrication on a flexible substrate. The technologies required for this research are independently developed. The TFT development is driven primarily by research into flexible displays. The MEMS development is driving by research in biosensors and micro actuators. This project involves the integration of TFT flexible circuit capabilities with MEMS micro actuators in the novel area of flexible acoustic transmitter arrays. This thesis focuses on the design, testing and analysis of the circuit components required for this project. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.S. Electrical Engineering 2012

La détection des déplacements nano-mécaniques par les techniques de transport électronique a atteint un haut niveau de sensibilité et de polyvalence. Afin de détecter l'amplitude d'oscillation d'un oscillateur nano-mécanique, une technique largement utilisée consiste à coupler ce mouvement de façon capacitive à un transistor à un seul électron ou, plus généralement, à un dispositif de transport, et à détecter la modulation haute fréquence du courant à travers le mélange non linéaire avec un signal électrique à une fréquence légèrement désaccordée. Cette méthode, connue sous le nom de technique de mélange des courants, est utilisée notamment pour la détection de nanotubes de carbone suspendus et s'est avérée particulièrement efficace, ce qui a permis d'obtenir des records de sensibilité dans la détection de masse et de force. Dans cette thèse nous étudions théoriquement les conditions qui limitent la sensibilité de cette méthode dans différents types de dispositifs de transport. La sensibilité est un compromis entre le bruit, le bruit de rétroaction et la fonction de réponse. Cette dernière est proportionnel au couplage électromécanique. Pour ces raisons dans la thèse, nous étudions la fonction de réponse, l'effet des fluctuations de courant et de déplacement (back-action) dans les dispositifs de détection suivants: (i) le transistor métallique à électron unique, (ii) le transistor à un seul niveau électronique et (iii) le point quantique cohérent. La sensibilité optimale est obtenue, comme d'habitude, lorsque la rétroaction du dispositif de détection est égale au bruit du signal intrinsèque, ce qui, dans notre cas, est le bruit en courant. Nous avons constaté que les valeurs optimales typiques du couplage sont obtenues dans la limite de couplage fort, où une forte renormalisation de la fréquence de résonance est observée et une bistabilité de l'oscillateur mécanique est présente [comme discuté dans G. Micchi, R. Avriller, F. Pistolesi, Phys. Rev. Lett. 115, 206802 (2015)]. Nous trouvons donc des limites supérieures à la sensibilité de la technique de détection de mélange des courants. Nous considérons également comment la technique du mélange des courants est modifiée dans la limite où le taux de transmission tunnel devient comparable à la fréquence de résonance de l'oscillateur mécanique / Detection of nanomechanical displacement by electronic transport techniques has reached a high level of sensitivity and versatility. In order to detect the amplitude of oscillation of a nanomechanical oscillator, a widely used technique consists of coupling this motion capacitively to a single-electron transistor or, more generally, to a transport device, and to detect the high-frequency modulation of the current through the nonlinear mixing with an electric signal at a slightly detuned frequency. This method, known as mixing-current technique, is employed in particular for the detection of suspended carbon nanotubes and has proven to be particularly successful leading to record sensitivities of mass and force detection. In this thesis we study theoretically the limiting conditions on the sensitivity of this method in different kind of transport devices. The sensitivity is a compromise between the noise, the back-action noise, and the response function. The latter is proportional to the electromechanical coupling. For these reasons in the thesis we study the response function, the effect of current and displacement (back-action) fluctuations for the following detection devices: (i) the metallic single electron transistor, (ii) the single-electronic level single electron transistor, and (iii) the coherent transport quantum dot. The optimal sensitivity is obtained, as usual, when the back-action of the detection device equals the intrinsic signal noise that, in our case, is the current noise. We found that the typical optimal values of the coupling are obtained in the strong coupling limit, where a strong renormalization of the resonating frequency is observed and a bistability of the mechanical oscillator is present [as discussed in G. Micchi, R. Avriller, F. Pistolesi, Phys. Rev. Lett. 115, 206802 (2015)]. We thus find upper bounds to the sensitivity of the mixing-current detection technique. We also consider how the mixing-current technique is modified in the limit where the tunneling rate becomes comparable to the resonating frequency of the mechanical oscillator.

Significant advances in wind turbine technology have increased the need for maintenance through condition monitoring. Indeed condition monitoring techniques exist and are deployed on wind turbines across Europe and America but are limited in scope. The sensors and monitoring devices used can be very expensive to deploy, further increasing costs within the wind industry. The work outlined in this thesis primarily investigates potential low-cost alternatives in the laboratory environment using vibration-based and modal testing techniques that could be used to monitor the condition of wind turbine blades. The main contributions of this thesis are: (1) the review of vibration-based condition monitoring for changing natural frequency identification; (2) the application of low-cost piezoelectric sounders with proof mass for sensing and measuring vibrations which provide information on structural health; (3) the application of low-cost miniature Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) accelerometers for detecting and measuring defects in micro wind turbine blades in laboratory experiments; (4) development of an in-service calibration technique for arbitrarily positioned MEMS accelerometers on a medium-sized wind turbine blade. This allowed for easier aligning of coordinate systems and setting the accelerometer calibration values using samples taken over a period of time; (5) laboratory validation of low-cost modal analysis techniques on a medium-sized wind turbine blade; (6) mimicked ice-loading and laboratory measurement of vibration characteristics using MEMS accelerometers on a real wind turbine blade and (7) conceptualisation and systems design of a novel embedded monitoring system that can be installed at manufacture, is self-powered, has signal processing capability and can operate remotely. By applying the conclusions of this work, which demonstrates that low-cost consumer electronics specifically MEMS accelerometers can measure the vibration characteristics of wind turbine blades, the implementation and deployment of these devices can contribute towards reducing the rising costs of condition monitoring within the wind industry.