National attention remains fixed on educational reform. Since the late 1980s, an increasing number of state and local education agencies have adopted high-stakes testing initiatives and accountability programs focused on increasing student achievement. States, like the State of California, are requiring local districts to implement a variety of reform measures related to improved student achievement. California's 1999 Public Schools Accountability Act (PSAA), which established the Immediate Intervention of Underperforming Schools Program (II/USP) as a way to fix the lowest performing schools, was the state's remedy to address a history of declining student achievement on national and state performance assessments. California's legislators and policymakers continue to support II/USP as a way to reform its lowest performing schools despite sufficient research that clearly delineates the positive or negative effects of II/USP on participating schools. This exploratory study was composed of a primary study and an auxiliary study. The purpose of the primary study was to survey a group of principals from the most successful II/USP elementary schools and describe the reform measures they perceived to improve academic performance. The purpose of the auxiliary study was to survey a group of principals from the least successful II/USP elementary schools in order to compare and contrast the perceptions between the two groups of principals. Data gathered from the primary study and the auxiliary study was used to advance a theory highlighted by the Woods Targeted Reform Achievement Model (Woods T-RAM). The Woods T-RAM was an organizational tool used by the researcher to promote a theory that low performing schools must implement, at the very least, three fundamental strategies when attempting reform. The results of the study indicated that, at the very least, there is a specific set of strategies elementary principals perceived to have helped improve academic achievement at their schools. In particular, principals from the successful II/USP schools perceived that schools must have local board members, district administrators and site leaders who must set a positive tone for change, promote a specific vision for the change, and provide resources and training that promote student learning. Furthermore, these principals perceived that teachers must be provided with well-articulated curricula that optimizes instructional time and provides a standardized set of achievement goals that were sequentially developed from one grade level to the next. And finally, these principals perceived that student performance does improve when teachers and administrators design a system for analyzing individual student performance data and develop customized instructional programs that meet specific performance goals.

Purpose . The purpose of this descriptive ex post facto study was to identify leadership strategies utilized by elementary principals to increase the academic achievement of African-American students in schools identified as Title I. Procedure . This study utilized qualitative research methods to determine the effectiveness of strategies used in schools to improve the achievement levels of African-American students in Sacramento County. Principal interviews were conducted in schools with free and reduced lunch counts of 70% or higher, enrollment of more than 33% African-Americans, and a principal who was assigned to the site for three or more years. Of the six Sacramento County elementary schools examined, three were high-achieving and three were low-achieving. Initial interviews were followed up with observations, and follow-up interviews. School and district documents were then reviewed to complete the triangulation process. Findings . The outcome of the study listed practices used in high-achieving schools and compared those practices to those used in low-achieving schools. Those commonly mentioned strategies found to be effective, as evidenced by improved test scores in low-achieving schools and implementation in high-achieving schools, were defined. The result was a comparison to determine whether the leadership practices were labeled as effective or ineffective. Evidence used to determine the effectiveness of leadership practices with African-American students included 1999 and 2002 schoolwide Academic Performance Index, 2002 Academic Performance Index scores for the African-American subgroup as compared to those of the Caucasian subgroup, and compared proficiency levels on the California Standards Test. Those practices found to be most effective in schools, whether they were low-achieving or high-achieving, were then categorized and listed. There were several common strategies found in the most effective schools. Schools that were most effective in improving achievement levels for African-American students shared some strategies, which were labeled as high impact strategies. Moderate impact strategies were shared by two of the three most effective schools, and low impact strategies were found in the most effective school solely. Additionally, it was determined that while principals felt that specialized training was necessary to truly serve the needs of the African-American student, none of them have provided such a training at their sites. Principals either felt that poverty was the true issue, or were afraid or hesitant to discuss issues related to race.

This study examined the effects of experience on the ethical decision making of elementary school principals through the use of personal interviews. Five beginning principals (two or less years of experience) and five veteran principals (greater than ten years of experience) were asked to respond to a set of ethical dilemmas based on realistic administrative situations. Each interviewee was asked to provide a course of action and explanation for each dilemma or situation. Interview results were analyzed and compared within the two groups, beginning and experienced, and between the two groups as well. Results were classified according to Roche's Framework. Results showed a strong pattern of similarity between the responses of the two groups. While responses or choices for courses of action were similar between the groups, differences were noted in the rationales for the solutions between the two groups. Beginning principals tended to be more rules based in their responses because of their lack of experience and knowledge of potential consequences. Because they possessed a depth of experience and knowledge of consequences, veteran principals tended to be more ends based in their thinking and decision making.

The focus on specific principal leadership behaviors that positively impact student achievement has become more and more pronounced since the inception of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. Recently, researchers have begun to focus on a more dramatic type of change as a method for improving student achievement in schools. Marzano, Waters, and McNulty (2005) conducted a meta-analysis of more than 5,000 studies and identified seven leadership behaviors that related to improved student achievement and were viewed as second-order in nature. In many cases, second-order change was needed (a) to accomplish the student achievement improvements necessary to attain Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) and (b) to ensure that all students would read on grade level by 2014. For this study, 66 principals from schools with fewer than 60% of students who qualified for free and reduced-price lunches from five urban Florida school districts completed an online survey, Principal Actions Survey (PAS), created to determine which of the seven leadership behaviors successful principals utilized in their schools. Principals were specifically asked to comment on those actions that they felt impacted student achievement and achievement of AYP. Principals consistently responded that they used the seven leadership behaviors, but the results from this study indicated very few statistically significant relationships or predictive relationships. The 66 principal responses were also compared to responses on the PAS of principals from urban Florida elementary schools with more than 60% of students who qualified for free and reducedprice lunches (La Cava, 2009). These comparisons indicated that principals of schools iv with a higher level of poverty reported utilization of the seven leadership behaviors on a more frequent basis or with a higher success rate than principals at schools with lower poverty levels.

Increased uses of educational technology by students and teachers in recent years have compelled elementary principals to expand educational technology resources and replace educational technology resources at the end of service life. The purpose of this study was to investigate strategies and practices employed by elementary principals engaged in leading the educational technology refresh process. Data collected for this qualitative, multi-site, descriptive case study occurred between November 2008 and June 2009. The study explored the educational technology refresh planning strategies of five elementary principals. Study participants were cited by members of their respective county education technology directors association as having directed recent best practice refresh projects. The study generated data pertaining to the refresh planning process, the influence of empirical data and best practice literature on the process, and the benefits of experience and collaboration in planning the process. The study also examined resistance to change and organizational turbulence created by the process. / Educational Administration

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As state-funded Pre-K programs in elementary schools continue to grow, elementary principals are increasingly responsible for supporting, supervising, and leading these programs. Therefore, examining elementary principals' early childhood leadership competencies and the factors influencing them may help understand and improve their experiences as early childhood education (ECE) leaders. This explanatory sequential mixed methods study examined the ECE leadership of Tennessee public elementary school principals in two phases. In the quantitative phase, statewide surveys were used to collect data from 67 principals. The survey comprised 51 items assessing nine ECE leadership competencies, synthesized from statements of leading ECE and elementary education organizations. The survey's face and content validity were established, and its construct validity was confirmed through exploratory factor analysis (EFA). Items within each subscale were highly correlated, with coefficients ranging from 0.6 to 0.9. Besides, reliability was assessed using Cronbach's α, which ranged from .815 to .939. The quantitative findings revealed that public elementary principals may lack ECE backgrounds. Moreover, most public elementary principals were responsible for state-funded Pre-K programs, but their responsibilities differed widely. Furthermore, public elementary principals may need varying levels of support and development in ECE leadership competencies. The inferential analysis found that receiving ECE content or experience during principal training may not significantly influence their perceived need for these competencies. However, receiving professional development opportunities focused on leading ECE programs may impact certain aspects of their perceived need. In the qualitative phase, semi-structured interviews were conducted with six participants from the first phase. The qualitative findings identified two themes. The first theme consisted of factors that support ECE leadership competencies and experiences. The second theme included factors needed to enhance principals' ECE leadership competencies and experiences. Both quantitative and qualitative results were integrated to explain the quantitative results. The study implications, limitations, and future research areas were then discussed. This study adds to the ongoing efforts to bridge the gap between ECE and elementary education. It highlights the significance of supporting elementary principals in becoming competent ECE leaders who can enhance the quality of state-funded Pre-K programs and sustain their positive impacts through the following grades.

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