La modélisation du recyclage - et l'allocation en général - est un sujet très débattu dans le domaine de l’analyse du cycle de vie (ACV). Cette thèse a pour objectif le développement d’une approche scientifique et cohérente pour la modélisation du recyclage en ACV afin de fournir des informations pertinentes aux entreprises. Ainsi, un cadre systématique est établi pour catégoriser les procédures d'allocation existantes en fonction de l’objectif de l’ACV et de l’approche attributionelle (ACV-A) ou conséquentielle (ACV-C). Une revue critique des directives officielles a montré qu'aucun d'entre elles ne recommande des procédures d’allocation conforme à ce cadre. L’approche d’imputation basée sur un schéma axiomatique qui explicite toute hypothèse subjective a été identifiée comme la méthode la plus pertinente pour l’ACV-A. Dans le cas de l'ACV-C, le ratio entre le prix du marché du matériau recyclé et celui du matériau primaire substitué est présenté comme un nouvel indicateur pour identifier si le recyclage permet de substituer la production de matériau primaire ou d’éviter son traitement en tant que déchet. Les processus qui sont affectés par une demande changeante pour un produit sont identifiés avec un diagramme de boucle causale, qui inclut également les stocks anthropiques comme un nouvel élément dans l’ACV-C. L'application des procédures d’allocation est démontrée par une étude de cas portant sur le recyclage des éléments de terres rares (ETR) des lampes fluorescentes. Les deux approches d’ACV fournissent des informations différentes et utiles aux entreprises. / Modeling of recycling – and allocation in general – is a heavily debated topic in the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) domain. This thesis aimed to find a coherent scientific approach to model recycling in LCA that provides relevant information to companies. Existing allocation procedures are captured by mathematical formulas and linked to an LCA goal and an attributional or consequential approach in a systematic framework. A review of official guidelines showed that none of them provides recommendations on allocation that is consistent with this framework. A partitioning approach was identified for attributional LCA (a-LCA). This approach is based on subjective assumptions, which are made explicit by axioms. In consequential LCA (c-LCA), the market-price ratio between the recycled and substituted primary material is introduced as a new indicator to identify whether additional recycling substitutes the production of primary materials or avoids waste treatment. The processes that are affected by a changing demand for a product are identified by a causal loop diagram, which also includes stockpiling as a new element in c-LCA. The application of the allocation procedures is demonstrated by a case study of the recycling of rare earth elements (REEs) from used fluorescent lamps. The a-LCA indicated that recycled REEs are more sustainable than primary REEs. The c-LCA showed that recycling is environmentally beneficial as long as the REEs are used in fluorescent lamps that substitute less energy-efficient halogen lamps. This demonstrates that both LCA approaches provide different but useful information for companies. Suggestions are given for policy measures when the market situation does not stimulate environmentally beneficial behavior. It is recommended, among other options, to extend the causal loop diagram of c-LCA to include additional mechanisms, such as rebound effects.

Competitive industries in the manufacturing sector have a holistic Life Cycle Management (LCM) view of business practices. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), which forms part of the LCM approach, is increasingly used as a decision support tool in the South African manufacturing industry. The Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) phase of the LCA tool has been standardised within the ISO 14000 family and aims to quantify the environmental impacts of economic activities. A number of LCIA methodologies have been developed in Europe, which can be applied directly when life cycle systems are assessed. The LCIA procedures that are most commonly used in the South African manufacturing industry include the CML, Ecopoints, EPS and Eco-indicators 95 and 99 procedures. The five European methods are evaluated based on the applicability of the respective classification, characterisation, normalisation and weighting elements for the South African situation. The evaluation and comparison is further based on a cradle-to-gate Screening Life Cycle Assessment (SLCA) case study of the production of dyed two-fold wool yarn in South Africa. Shortcomings are identified with the European methodologies in the South African context in terms of comprehensiveness and modelling approaches. A LCIA framework and calculation procedure, termed the Resource Impact Indicator (RII) model, is subsequently proposed for South Africa, which is based on the protection of four natural resource groups: water, air, land, and mined abiotic resources. A distance-to-target approach is used for the normalisation of midpoint categories, which focuses on the ambient quality and quantity objectives for the four resource groups. The quality and quantity objectives are determined for defined South African Life Cycle Assessment (SALCA) regions and take into account endpoint or damage targets. Following the precautionary approach, RIIs are calculated for the resource groups from conventional Life Cycle Inventories (LCIs). The calculation of the RIIs ensures that all natural resources that are important from a South African perspective are duly considered in a LCIA. The results of a LCIA are consequently not reliant on detailed LCIs and the number of midpoint categories that converge on a single resource group. The proposed model is evaluated with the SLCA wool case study. The case study establishes the importance of region-specificity, for LCIs and LCIAs. The proposed LCIA model further demonstrates reasonable ease of communication of LCIA results to decision-makers or managers. Subjective weighting values for the resource groups are also proposed, based on survey results from manufacturing industry sectors in the South African automotive value chain, and the expenditure of the South African national government on environmental issues. The subjective weighting values are used to calculate overall Environmental Performance Resource Impact Indicators (EPRIIs) when comparing life cycle systems with each other. The EPRII approach is applied to a specific LCM problem in the South African context, i.e. evaluating and comparing environmental performance for supply chain management purposes in the developing country context. Thereby, RIIs are provided for key Cleaner Production process parameters in the South Africa context: water usage, energy usage, and waste produced per manufactured product. / Thesis (PhD (Engineering and Technology Management))--University of Pretoria, 2005. / Graduate School of Technology Management (GSTM) / unrestricted

This dissertation studies one of the newest tools in environmental policy in the developing world context - that of voluntary environmental programmes (VEPs). Developed and promoted in the past few decades by policy practitioners looking to regulate environmental pollution without saddling enterprises and governments with high regulatory costs, VEPs remain vastly under-studied, especially when compared with market instruments and the long-standing command and control approach. Fundamental questions such as who the likely participants are, why firms would voluntarily take on added costs of environmental improvement, and whether any financial and environmental benefits arise from participation remain largely unanswered. This gap in the literature is particularly severe for the case of developing countries. While VEPs in general and ISO 14001 in particular have rapidly increased across the developing world, the understanding of their implications in the academic literature trail far behind. This dissertation aims to fill some of this gap in the existing literature by using unique firm level data and applying rigorous empirical micro-econometric methods to analyse the adoption of the ISO 14001 international voluntary scheme in Thailand. The study focuses on three core manufacturing industries - food and beverages, textiles and wearing apparel, and electronics and electrical appliances, chosen to represent three main types of manufacturing activities in the country. The study finds that both macroeconomic and industry-specific factors influence firms' participation in the ISO 14001 scheme. It also finds that the degrees of environmental impact from programme adoption vary by industry, and that although participation in the programme requires non-trivial commitments of the firm's resources, participating firms are not placed at a financial disadvantage when compared with non-adopting firms.

Environmental  ordering is a process  that promotes  adequate  land  use  through regulation, planning and management of the elements of a specific environment. Nevertheless, the process of environmental ordering has been assumed as static, considering only physical aspects in the analysis of environmental problems. The concept has not regarded the joint of values, attitudes, and motivations that govern the relationship between  society and nature.In mountain protected  areas, the attempts to take on environmental orderinghave been even more difficult because of their high physical, social, and cultural variability; as much as the ways the relationship between their inhabitants and nature has been  understood. In the face of this, the present text poses that, in the process of environmental ordering of these areas, the attention should be placed on specific socio-cultural and natural environmental features, which  represent  the  structures  that  guide and address the activities of the groups that use the natural resources of the area. This will allow understanding and explaining their practices  and how they lead to environmental changes. This understanding, in turn, will facilitare the phases of regulation, planning, and management  of the mountain protected  areas. Under this premise, I have analysed the grazing impacts in Huascarán National Park, by studying the factors that guide this activity. This case attempts to be an example of analysis of other activities in mountain protected areas when processes of environmental ordering are undertaken in such zones.In order to accomplish this, I chose three cases within the park and I present their physical,  social, and cultural characteristics related to grazing. These characteristics helped me to find out the structures that might be guiding the development of grazing, and how they influence the way grazing causes different impacts on the landscape of the park. Simultaneously, the existence of environmental changes in the area was confirmed through the review of aerial photos, and the construction of topographic profiles. Afterwards, I analysed if these changes were linked to grazing or not. At the end, I pose sorne considerations to  undertake  environmental  ordering in  mountain  protected  areas  through  an alternative view emerged  from  the three  study cases in the park. / El ordenamiento  ambiental  es un  proceso  que promueve  el uso adecuado del suelo a través de la regulación, la planificación y el manejo de elementos relaciona­ dos con un ambiente  específico. Sin embargo, este proceso ha sido asumido mu­chas veces como estático, considerando solo aspectos físicos en el análisis de problemas ambientales. El concepto  no ha tomado en cuenta el conjunto de valores, actitudes y motivaciones que gobiernan la relación entre la sociedad y la naturaleza.En las áreas protegidas de montaña, los intentos por llevar a cabo procesos de ordenamiento ambiental han sido aun más difíciles, debido a su alta variabilidad física, social y cultural, y a las formas en que se han entendido las relaciones entre sus habitantes  y la  naturaleza. Teniendo esto en  cuenta,  el  presente  documento  propone  que los  análisis  en los procesos de ordenamiento ambiental en las áreas protegidas de montaña  se centren en el estudio de las características físicas y socio-culturales de dichos am­ bientes, pues estas últimas construyen las estructuras que guían y dirigen las acti­ vidades de los grupos que utilizan los recursos naturales de dichas zonas. Esto permitirá, a su vez, entender y explicar sus prácticas y cómo estas generan cambios en el medio ambiente, lo cual facilitaría  la regulación,  planificación  y gestión  de las áreas  protegidas  de montaña.Bajo esta premisa, se ha tomado como ejemplo el caso del pastoreo en el ParqueNacional Huascarán para determinar las formas en que creemos deberían de ser analizadas las actividades que van a ser reguladas, planificadas y manejadas duran­ te el proceso de ordenamiento  ambiental.  Este  caso  intenta  servir  como  ejemplo de análisis de otras actividades en áreas naturales protegidas de montaña,  en  el marco  de procesos  de ordenamiento  ambiental  en  dichas zonas.Para llevar a cabo este estudio se escogieron tres casos en el interior del parque, en los que se analizaron las características  físicas, sociales y culturales que podían·estar guiando o estructurando el desarrollo de la actividad, para luego de ellointentar vincularlas con la ocurrencia de impactos sobre el paisaje.  Paralelamente, se trató de confirmar la existencia de cambios ambientales en el área a través de la revisión de fotos aéreas y de la construcción de perfiles topográficos para determinar si estos indicadores de impacto se hallaban efectivamente vinculados con el pastoreo. Finalmente, a partir del análisis de estos casos, se plantean  algunas consideracionespara el proceso de ordenamiento ambiental en áreas protegidas de montaña.

Projects to observe the marine biota are developed worldwide to mitigate the impacts of anthropogenic noise on marine mammals. The first chapter of this dissertation analyzes guides published by various institutions to orient the methodology to be applied in those projects, in order to ensure better efficacy in mitigating and quality of acquired data. Therefore bibliographic research was made on the internet and it was found 16 guides specific to monitoring cetaceans. The protocols were similar in methodology and mitigation measures suggested. The second chapter analyzed a set of forms utilized during daytime visual observations aboard of drilling rigs occurred in the Sergipe Basin between 2010 and 2012. The objective of the analysis was to evaluate the methodology applied in the project of sighting of marine mammals during oil and gas drilling since the guide applied has been customized from protocols to mitigate the impact of marine seismic surveys. It was proposed indicators of quality based in the content of fields of the forms. The results indicate that the data have good quality to be used in scientific studies of occurrence, distribution and abundance of cetaceans. However, the method used in the monitoring of cetaceans conducted in offshore drilling activities proved ineffective for the purposes of assessing the impacts of oil and gas drilling phase on this group of animals since that the method adopted does not emphasize the behavior exhibited by cetaceans and use forms generalized to four different vertebrate groups. / Projetos de observação de biota marinha são desenvolvidos em todo mundo como forma de mitigação de impactos de atividades produtoras de ruídos sobre os mamíferos marinhos. O primeiro capítulo dessa dissertação analisa os guias publicados por diversas instituições em nível mundial, com o propósito de garantir melhor eficácia na mitigação e na qualidade dos dados adquiridos. Para tanto foi realizada pesquisa bibliográfica na rede mundial de computadores onde foram encontrados 16 guias publicados e uma comparação entre esses protocolos. Uma das conclusões retiradas está no alto nível de padronização metodológica encontrada na aquisição dos dados de ocorrência e nas medidas mitigatórias a serem implementadas ao ser observado um animal nas proximidades da área de atividade. Como resultado geral, os guias e protocolos se assemelham substancialmente nos requisitos exigidos, orientando as mesmas medidas mitigadoras nos documentos analisados. No segundo capítulo foram analisados os formulários preenchidos durante a implementação de observações visuais diurnas, a bordo das plataformas de perfuração, realizadas durante perfurações ocorridas na Bacia de Sergipe entre 2010 e 2012. A metodologia aplicada nessas observações segue o Guia de Monitoramento da Biota Marinha publicado pelo IBAMA em 2005. As análises tiveram como objetivo a avaliação da qualidade das informações contidas nos formulários de observação de mamíferos marinhos executados em atividades de perfuração marítima, uma vez que o guia que o embasou foi publicado para atividades de aquisição de dados sísmicos. Para essa avaliação foram criados indicadores de qualidade os quais ponderaram as informações inseridas nos formulários de registro de biota preenchidos em cada ocorrência. Como resultado pode-se concluir que os dados podem ser considerados de boa qualidade para estudos de ocorrência, distribuição e abundância. Entretanto, o método utilizado no monitoramento de cetáceos conduzidos em atividades de perfuração marítima mostrou-se ineficaz para os propósitos de avaliação dos impactos dessa atividade petrolífera sobre qualquer um dos grupos de cetáceos registrados, uma vez que este não dá ênfase ao comportamento exibido, generalizando o formulário para os quatro grupos de vertebrados. Diante do exposto e afim de orientar a execução de projetos de monitoramento de mamíferos marinhos a serem executados a bordo de plataformas de perfuração foi apresentado no último capítulo, uma proposta de guia metodológico aplicável durante esse tipo de atividade de exploração e produção de petróleo.

Atualmente verifica-se uma significativa demanda da sociedade e gestores por informações e ferramentas que permitam colocar em prática o conceito de desenvolvimento sustentável e efetivamente internalizar nas políticas, planos, programas e projetos o reconhecimento da interdependência entre as diversas dimensões, tais como: ambientais, econômicas, sociais e institucionais. De forma crescente a temática da sustentabilidade tem trazido novas variáveis às arenas de discussão e tomada de decisão ao considerar as diversas variáveis dentro de um mesmo plano. Uma das principais motivações para a consideração da interdependência destas dimensões é a fragilidade do modelo de desenvolvimento baseado na utilização de fontes não renováveis de energia, bem como seus impactos no meio sócio-ambiental e reflexos no meio econômico. Neste cenário, o etanol de cana-de-açúcar enquanto fonte renovável de energia surge como potencial substituto ao uso de combustíveis à base de petróleo (notadamente a gasolina), em especial no Brasil, onde o mesmo é uma realidade. Observa-se um otimismo e incentivo quanto às políticas públicas na área energética no que tange esta fonte, em especial com políticas de incentivo ao seu crescimento. No entanto, observam-se também questionamentos da sociedade quanto à real sustentabilidade desta fonte energética, dados os impactos provenientes de sua cultura, produção e uso em larga escala. Estes questionamentos ganham força quando realizados no estado de São Paulo, dada a representatividade da atividade frente ao Brasil e ao mundo. Neste contexto, é evidenciada a importância da construção de ferramentas que possibilitem avaliar de forma integrada a sustentabilidade do etanol de cana-de-açúcar, bem como informar os tomadores de decisão, embasando políticas públicas voltadas para o desenvolvimento sustentável. Estas ferramentas, bem como as políticas embasadas por elas, passam, no estado de São Paulo, obrigatoriamente pela Secretaria do Meio Ambiente SMA/SP. Os indicadores ao capturarem a complexidade do desenvolvimento, sem reduzir a significância de cada um dos componentes do sistema, figuram-se como tais ferramentas. Com o propósito de avaliar os indicadores ambientais produzidos pela SMA/SP à luz dos princípios e critérios de boas práticas na construção e uso de indicadores, o presente estudo busca contribuir para o avanço nas discussões, em especial em termos de métodos de avaliação de indicadores ambientais voltados para a sustentabilidade, tendo como contexto de estudo o etanol de cana-de-açúcar no estado. Este estudo apresentou um método conduzido por meio de entrevistas e uma oficina de especialistas que apontou, como resultado, um conjunto de critérios de referência para análise destes indicadores. Ainda como produto da pesquisa o método construído foi aplicado a um dos principais indicadores utilizados pela SMA, qual seja o IQA - Índice de Qualidade de Água, revelando, por meio de uma análise SWOT, as forças e fraquezas, oportunidades e ameaças deste indicador na discussão da sustentabilidade do etanol. Futuros estudos voltados para o aperfeiçoamento das aplicações são desejáveis para melhoria dos resultados e composição de um sistema adequado de formulação e avaliação dos indicadores para esta atividade. / Currently there is a significant demand of society and managers with information and tools to put into practicing the concept of sustainable development and effectively internalize the policies, plans, programs and interdependence recognition between the various dimensions such as environmental, economic, social and institutional. Increasingly the sustainability issue has brought new variables to discussion and decision making to consider the many variables within the same plane. One of the main motivations for considering the interdependence of these dimensions is the fragility of the development model based on the use of non-renewable energy sources, as well as its impacts on socio-environmental and consequences in the economic area. In this scenario, ethanol from sugar cane as a renewable source of energy emerges as a potential substitute to the use of petroleum-based fuels (in particular gasoline), especially in Brazil, where it is a reality. There is an optimism and encouragement concerning public policies in energy with respect to this source, particularly with policies to encourage its growth. However, there is also society questioning about the real sustainability of this energy source, given the impacts from its cultivation, production and use on a large scale. These questions gain strength when held in São Paulo State, given the representation of activity against Brazil and the world. In this context, it is evident the importance of building tools that will assess the sustainability into an integrated way about ethanol from sugar cane, and inform decision makers, basing public policies for sustainable development. These tools, as well as policies based on them, are in the state of Sao Paulo, necessarily by the Environment Secretary of São Paulo - SMA / SP. The indicators to capture the complexity of development without reducing the significance of each system component appear as such those tools. With the purpose of evaluating the environmental indicators produced by SMA / SP against the principles and good practice criteria in the construction and use of indicators, this study seeks to advance the discussions, particularly in terms of evaluation methods on indicators toward environmental sustainability, within the study context ethanol sugar cane in the state. This study presented a method conducted through interviews and a workshop of experts that pointed out as a result, a set of benchmarks for analysis of these indicators. Even as a research product the built method was applied to one of the main indicators used by the SMA, which is the WQI - Water Quality Index, revealing, through a SWOT analysis, strengths and weaknesses, opportunities and threats in this indicator to discuss the sustainability of ethanol. Future studies aimed at improving the applications are desirable for improved performance and composition of a proper system to design and evaluate indicators for this activity.

Diversos países têm direcionado esforços para redução de emissões de Gases de Efeito Estufa (GEEs), acompanhados de medidas de adaptação aos cenários de mudanças climáticas e mitigação de seus efeitos. Ao mesmo tempo, o padrão de crescimento urbano atual tem sido apontado como fator de aumento da ineficiência dos fluxos de matéria e energia nas cidades. Mais especificamente, são encontradas relações entre padrões de uso do solo urbano, o comportamento de viagens da população e a necessidade de utilização de energia para seu deslocamento diário. Deste modo, o presente trabalho volta-se para a avaliação dos efeitos do crescimento urbano disperso na eficiência energética das cidades, especificamente no que tange à eficiência dos deslocamentos intra-urbanos para a realização das principais atividades diárias da população. Deste modo, a presente pesquisa propôs a elaboração de cenários de emissões de GEEs para a cidade de São Carlos (SP) como indicadores de eficiência dos deslocamentos. Foi elaborado um cenário inicial para o ano de 2010 e nove cenários prospectivos (um tendencial e oito alternativos) para 2050, permitindo a comparação entre alternativas de desenvolvimento urbano. As alternativas variaram em relação aos fatores de dispersão e compactação da área urbana; concentração e homogeneização da distribuição espacial das atividades (atratores de deslocamento) e dos locais de moradia da população (geradores de deslocamento); e alterações nas escolhas entre os modos de transporte pela população. O cenário representativo das tendências de dispersão observadas atualmente apresentou um aumento de 135,6% das emissões em relação a 2010. Como mais eficiente, o cenário com distribuição mais compacta das moradia, distribuição mais homogênea dos locais de realização das atividades, a população opta por residir em locais mais próximos aos locais de trabalho e estudo e o transporte coletivo é mais utilizado que o individual, apresentou uma quantidade de emissões 74,89% menores que o cenário tendencial e 40,9% menores que o cenário para 2010. Os níveis de emissões calculados para a cidade de São Carlos, ainda que relativamente baixos quando considerados de modo isolado, demonstram a relevância de se levar em conta a eficiência energética no planejamento da rede urbana de transportes e, mais ainda, no planejamento das formas e arranjos espaciais da cidade. / Many countries have spent efforts to reduce Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) emissions, together with strategies of adaptation to new scenarios of climate changes and mitigation of its effects. At the same time, the pattern of growth of the cities, known as urban sprawl, has been reported as associated to the increase of inefficiency of flows of matter and energy in the cities. More specifically, relationships between patterns of urban land use, travel behavior of the population and the need to use energy for your daily commute are found, specifically with respect to the efficiency of intra-urban displacement to perform the daily activities of the population. Therefore, this research proposed the elaboration of scenarios of GHG emissions for the city of São Carlos (SP) as indicators of efficiency of displacement. An initial scenario for the year 2010 and nine prospective scenarios (one trend and eight alternative) to the horizon of 2050 were prepared, allowing the comparison of alternative urban development. Alternatives varied according to the scatter and compacting factors of the urban area; concentration and homogenization of the spatial distribution of activities (displacement attractors) and dwelling places of the population (displacement generators); and changes in choices between modes of transport by population. The scenario representative of the dispersion trends currently observed increased by 135.6% emissions compared to 2010 As the most efficient, the scenario with more compact distribution of housing, more homogeneous distribution of the local of activities, the population chooses to reside in closer to places of work and study and the local public transportation is more used than the individual, presented an amount of 74.89% lower emissions than the trends scenario and 40.9% lower than the scenario for 2010. Although the emissions levels calculated to the city of São Carlos are considered low when compared with other cities, the study shows the relevance of considering the energy efficiency in the urban transport system planning and, moreover, in the planning of urban arrangements.

Mundialmente, o setor da construção civil é um dos principais responsáveis pelo consumo de energia primária e emissão de CO2. No Brasil, cerca de 48,5% do consumo de energia elétrica advém do setor de edificações, sendo os edifícios comerciais responsáveis por 14,4% deste valor. Nesse contexto, as características da fachada considerada o maior elemento construtivo nos edifícios comerciais -, influenciam diretamente o consumo energético e os impactos ambientais desse tipo de edificação. Por conta disso, o investimento em políticas que promovam a eficiência energética pode ser considerado a chave para o desenvolvimento sustentável e mitigação das alterações climáticas. Diversos acordos mundiais, como o Protocolo de Kyoto, a Diretiva Europeia 2010/31/EU (com os renomados objetivos 20-20-20) e o Anexo 57, da Agência Internacional de Energia (IEA), estabeleceram limites para as emissões de CO2, redução do consumo de energia, investimento na produção de energias renováveis e métodos para avaliar a energia incorporada e as emissões de CO2 dos edifícios. Dentre os sistemas utilizados para avaliar e produzir edificações mais sustentáveis, destaca-se a Avaliação de Ciclo de Vida (ACV). Essa técnica é capaz de fazer uma avaliação holística de todo o ciclo de vida um produto, identificando elementos que impactam o meio ambiente. Através dela, evidencia-se o do consumo energético advindo da fase de uso da edificação como um fator importante no ciclo de vida de um edifício, que pode gerar impactos ambientais significativos. Assim, uma série de ferramentas estão disponíveis no sentido de integrar a avaliação do desempenho energético ao ambiental, dentre elas, destacam-se para a presente pesquisa as metodologias MARS-SC e a Análise de Custo Ótimo. A primeira é uma análise multicritério, que realiza a normalização dos impactos ambientais (calculados na ACV) por categorias de indicadores, enquanto a segunda prevê um estudo de otimização entre um cenário-base e vários cenários de reabilitação energética, considerando custo, emissões de CO2 e consumo de recursos energéticos. Com isso, o objetivo dessa pesquisa consiste na avaliação integrada do consumo de energia, impactos ambientais e custo, ao longo do ciclo de vida de distintas soluções (288 cenários) de fachada de edifícios de escritórios no Brasil por meio de metodologias de análises multicritério (MARS-SC) e Custo Ótimo. Para os cenários de análise, foram calculados o consumo energético e a quantidade de materiais - que geraram os impactos ambientais e os custos. Os resultados indicaram a importância da fase de uso no ciclo de vida do edifício, a qual foi responsável por cerca 70% em média das emissões de CO2 ao longo de 60 anos de utilização do edifício. Tal impacto se refletiu no custo do ciclo de vida das soluções construtivas, pois os cenários com maior consumo energético na fase de uso causaram um grande impacto no custo operacional. Dentre os parâmetros avaliados em cada cenário, o tipo de fachada e a porcentagem de abertura na fachada foram os que mais influenciaram os resultados, em todos os aspectos (energético, ambiental e custo). Os cenários com Fachada Tradicional foram os que obtiveram os melhores desempenhos, enquanto que o de Fachada Cortina, PAF de 80%, vidro incolor e sem dispositivo de sombreamento foi o de maior consumo energético, mais impactante ambientalmente e mais caro. Em contrapartida, o uso de dispositivos de sombreamento, apesar de aumentar as emissões de CO2 na fase de pré-uso, reduziu o consumo energético na fase de uso da edificação. Este fato promoveu, no balanço final, reduções dos impactos ambientais totais e do custo das soluções construtivas, ou seja, a redução do custo operacional se sobrepôs ao custo de construção. Dessa forma, ter como premissa a eficiência energética atrelada ao projeto arquitetônico, pode garantir edifícios melhores não apenas energeticamente, mas também ambiental e economicamente. Tal fato pode impactar não apenas um edifício isolado, mas todo um conjunto edificado de um bairro, uma cidade ou mesmo um país. / Globally, the construction industry is one of the main sectors responsible for primary energy consumption and CO2 emissions. In Brazil, about 48.5% of electricity consumption comes from the building sector, with commercial buildings representing 14.4% of this value. In this context, the characteristics of the façade - considered the greatest constructive element in commercial buildings - directly influence energy consumption and the environmental impacts of this type of building. As a result, investment in policies that promote energy efficiency can be considered the key to sustainable development and climate change mitigation. Several global agreements, such as the Kyoto Protocol, the European Directive 2010/31 / EU (with the well-known \"20-20-20\" objectives) and Annex 57, from the International Energy Agency (IEA), have established limits to CO2 emissions, energy consumption reduction, investments in production of renewable energy and methods for assessing a building´s incorporated energy and CO2 emissions. Among the systems used to evaluate and create more sustainable buildings, the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) stands out. This technique can make a holistic assessment of a product´s entire life cycle and identify issues that impact the environment. This method makes it evident that the energy consumption yielding from the building´s use phase is an important factor in the building´s life cycle, bringing significant environmental impacts. Among all the tools available to integrate the evaluation of energy with environmental performance, MARS-SC Methodology and Cost Optimum Analysis stand out on this research. The first is a multicriteria analysis, which performs the normalization of environmental impacts by indicator´s categories, while the second one provides an optimization study between a baseline scenario and several energy rehabilitation ones, considering cost, CO2 emissions and energy resources consumption. The objective of this research is to assess the integrated energy consumption, environmental impact and cost of different life cycle façade solutions (288 scenarios) from office buildings in Brazil through methodologies of multi-criteria analysis (MARSSC) and Cost Optimum Analysis. For the analysis scenarios, the energy consumption and material quantities - which generated the environmental impacts and costs - were calculated. The results showed the importance of a building´s life cycle´s use phase, which represented an average of 70% in CO2 emissions. This impact was reflected in the life cycle cost of construction solutions, as the scenarios with higher energy consumption in the use phase caused the major operating costs impact. Among the parameters evaluated, for each scenario, the type of façade and the window-to-wall ratio were the ones that most influenced the results in all aspects (energy, environmental and cost). The Traditional Façade scenarios obtained the best performance, while the Curtain Façade, WWR 80%, colorless glass without shading devices had the highest energy consumption, more expensive and more environmentally impacting. In contrast, the use of shading devices, despite of increasing CO2 in the pre-use phase, reduced energy consumption in the building´s use phase. This fact showed, on ending accounts, reductions in the total environmental impact and cost of construction solutions, i.e. the reduction of operating costs surpassed the cost of construction. Thus, the premise of having energy efficiency linked to the architectural project can guarantee better buildings, not only energetically, but also environmentally and economically. This may impact not only one building, but a whole group of buildings within a neighborhood, a city or even a country.

One of the methods utilized for quantification of environmental impacts of human activities is Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA). This dissertation applies the method on renovations of residential buildings in the Czech Republic. The reason is high potential for environmental savings in existing building stock and lack of such works in the Czech conditions. Therefore the dissertation deals with LCA of building renovations to increase the knowledge in this field. Moreover it also questions and evaluates accuracy of building LCA in general to increase understanding of differences and inaccuracies that are often admitted, but seldom analysed in literature. The dissertation includes five LCAs of two case studies: a block-of-flats in Brno and a terraced house in a nearby village. First case study includes LCAs of the original state and renovation of the block-of-flats. The second case study describes LCAs of the original state, partial reconstruction or demolition and new construction of the terraced house. The LCAs are performed in two software tools: Eco-Bat 4.0 and GaBi 4. Detailed models of the evaluated buildings are based on available designs. Environmental impacts are calculated in four impact categories predefined in Eco-Bat 4.0 to enable comparison of results: Ecological Scarcity, Cumulative Energy Demand (or Primary Energy in GaBi 4), Non-Renewable Energy and Global Warming Potential. The accuracy of the performed LCAs is tested in up to 324 different scenario combinations considering variable service life of building materials, construction waste quantities, waste management and transport distances. Generally, the results confirm environmental efficiency of building renovations. The renovation of block-of-flats results in 17.39% average reduction of total environmental impacts. Demolition and new construction of the terraced house result in 76.83% average savings. However, the variation of results is rather high due to tested scenario combinations: up to 56.06%.

L'objectif de cette thèse est de contribuer au développement de l'énergie éolienne au Liban et des problèmes de stockage qui y sont liés. Une analyse des caractéristiques du vent dans 14 sites libanais a été effectuée dans le but de sélectionner les sites optimaux pour l'implantation d'éoliennes. Après la sélection de ces cinq sites optimaux, le choix de l'éolienne adéquate et la détermination du nombre d'éoliennes qui pourrait être érigées dans chacun de ces cinq sites, une évaluation du potentiel éolien a été réalisée afin d'estimer la quantité d'électricité qui pourrait être produite par ces éoliennes. Les résultats montrent qu'il y a un excédent d'électricité produite par les éoliennes qui pourrait être enregistré pendant la nuit, ce qui nous a incités à travailler sur la conception et le dimensionnement d'un système de stockage hydraulique de l'énergie éolienne afin d'optimiser sa pénétration dans le réseau. Les cinq sites sélectionnés pour l'implantation d'éoliennes au Liban ont été soumis à la procédure d'évaluation et d'examen des impacts sur l'environnement, notamment sur le paysage et les oiseaux, ce qui aide à faciliter l'élaboration des projets prenant en compte tous les enjeux environnementaux. A la fin du travail, des pistes d'élaboration d'un règlement pour l'implantation d'éoliennes au Liban et une analyse économique du projet d'implantation d'éoliennes et d'un système de stockage ont été menées. / The objective of this thesis is to investigate of the development of the wind power in Lebanon and storage related issues. An analysis of wind characteristics at 14 Lebanese sites was carried out in order to select the optimal sites for the implementation of wind turbines. After the optimization procedure (5 sites in final), the choice of the appropriate wind turbine (in terms of capacity) and the determination of the number of wind turbines that could be erected in each of selected sites, an evaluation of the wind potential has been performed to estimate the level of electrical power that could be produced. The results show that there is an overproduction of electricity could be registered during the night, which prompted us to work on the design and dimensioning of a hydraulic storage of wind energy system to optimize its penetration into the grid. The five selected sites for the installation of wind turbines in Lebanon were subjected to the evaluation process and review of environmental impacts, particularly regarding landscape and birds, which helps to facilitate project development taking into account all environmental issues. At the end of the work, tentative regulations to erect wind turbines in Lebanon and an economic analysis of the wind project and implementation of a storage system have been proposed. / Doctorat en Sciences de l'ingénieur et technologie / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished