La nutrition azotée des bactéries et des plantes est actuellement un sujet de grande importance, notamment pour comprendre comment améliorer les voies métaboliques aboutissant à l’assimilation de l’azote et à plus grande échelle, optimiser des apports d’engrais et augmenter le rendement des cultures. Dans ce contexte, la réaction d’amidation catalysée par la glutamine synthétase (GS), qui fixe l’ammonium (NH₄)⁺ en glutamine, est cruciale car elle est à la fois le point d’entrée de l’azote dans les végétaux, et une étape-clef du recyclage de l’azote (en particulier, NH₄⁺ photorespiratoire). Dans cette étude, nous nous sommes intéressés à la cinétique enzymatique et au mécanisme chimique de la GS. Des systèmes analytiques (HPLC, RMN , GC-MS) ont  été optimisés pour permettre la mesure de l’activité enzymatique in vitro et pour réaliser des analyses par spectrométrie de masse à ratio isotopique. Avec ces techniques, nous avons pu regarder précisément les effets isotopiques ¹²C/¹³C, ¹⁴N/¹⁵N et H₂O/D₂O (solvant) lors de la catalyse, en utilisant la GS d’E. coli et d’Arabidopsis thaliana (GS1,2). Nos résultats montrent qu’il n’y a pas d’effet isotopique ¹²C/¹³C, mais qu’il y a un fractionnement ¹⁴N/¹⁵N de »16‰. En outre, il y a un effet inverse du solvant (réaction 1.5 à 2 fois plus rapide dans D₂O).  Cela suggère que la création de la liaison C----N (amidation) est partiellement limitante (engagement catalytique de »14% seulement) et que le réseau de ponts hydrogènes dans le site actif est crucial pour déterminer la vitesse de la réaction. L’apparition d’effets ¹⁴N/¹⁵N inverses dans certaines circonstances et les effets drastiques causés par une substitution du cofacteur métallique (Mg²⁺) suggèrent en outre que l’étape d’amidation peut être réversible et que la coordination par un métal joue un rôle très important pour stabiliser les intermédiaires de la réaction, en interaction avec le solvant. Ainsi, dans son solvant naturel qu’est H₂O, la GS réalise une réaction ‘chimiquement difficile’ (barrière énergétique élevée de l’amidation) rendue possible par le clivage de l’ATP et son caractère exergonique. / Nitrogen nutrition in bacteria and plants is currently an important topic, in particular to identify key points for metabolic improvements in N assimilation and more generally, to optimize fertilization and crop yield. In such a context, the amidation reaction catalyzed by glutamine synthetase (GS), which fixes ammonium (NH₄)⁺ into glutamine, is of crucial importance since it both represents the N entry in plants and the main step of N recycling (such as photorespiratory (NH₄)⁺. Here, we examined GS kinetics and chemical mechanism. Analytical methods (HPLC, NMR, GC-MS) have been set up so as to measure in vitro activities and isotopic abundance by isotope ratio mass spectrometry. These gave access to isotope effects (¹²C/¹³C, ¹⁴N/¹⁵N et H₂O/D₂O – solvent) during catalysis, with the GS from either E. coli or A. thaliana (GS1,2). Our results show that there no ¹²C/¹³C isotope effect but there is significant ¹⁴N/¹⁵N isotope fractionation of ca. 16‰. In addition, there is an inverse solvent isotope effect (reaction 1.5 to 2 times faster in D₂O). This suggests that forming the C----N bond (amidation) is partially rate-limiting (catalytic commitment of ca. 14% only) and the H-bond network in the active site is of substantial importance for the reaction rate. The occurrence of inverse ¹⁴N/¹⁵N isotope effects under certain circumstances as well as the drastic impact of changing the metal cofactor (Mg²⁺)) indicate that the amidation step can be reversible and that the coordination by the metal plays a key role in stabilizing reaction intermediates, by interfacing the solvent. In other words, in its natural solvent H₂O, the GS catalyses an intrinsically ‘difficult’ reaction (high energy barrier of amidation) made possible by both ATP cleavage and its exergonic nature.

A primeira parte desta tese aborda estudos sobre a reatividade de compostos de telúrio eletrofílicos, principalmente tetracloreto de telúrio e tricloretos aromáticos de telúrio. Novos aspectos da reatividade de TeCl4 frente a alcinos e algumas acetofenonas foram observados e, a partir da elucidação estrutural dos compostos obtidos, por cristalografia, uma racionalização mecanística foi proposta para cada caso. As proposições apresentadas encontraram respaldo com a detecção de intermediários transientes por estudos de espectrometria de massas com ionização por electron-spray (ESI-MS/MS). Além de novos aspectos da química do Telúrio, os compostos preparados encontraram aplicação como potentes e seletivos inibidores de cisteíno proteases. Com esta aplicação estabelecida, foram sintetizadas ambos os enantiômeros de uma telurana e a atividade inibitória destas frente a Catepsina B mostrou dependência da estereoquímica devido a dependência estereoquímica da interação entre a enzima e o inibidor. A segunda parte deste trabalho trata do desenvolvimento da reação de abertura de anel de aziridinas por reagentes organometálicos de cobre derivados de teluretos vinílicos e arílicos que resultaram em derivados de aminas homoalílicas ou homobenzílicas. Em seguida, a reatividade de aziridinas alílicas foi estudada frente a uma série de reagentes organometálicos de lítio, magnésio, cobre e zinco que mostraram influenciar a regio- e estereosseletividades das reações de abertura. / The first part of this thesis deals with the study of the reactivity of electrophilic tellurium compounds, mainly tellurium tetrachloride and aromatic tellurium trichlorides. New aspects of the reactivity of TeCl4 towards alkynes and some acetophenones were disclosed. A mechanistic rationale for each of the processes studied was possible by the determination of the stereochemistry for each product by monocrystal X-ray diffraction analysis. The proposition of the formation of cationic intermediates in the addition reaction of TeCl4 to alkynes was corroborated by the detection and characterization of transient intermediates by ESI-MS/MS experiments. Besides the new aspects of the Tellurium chemistry found, the prepared compounds showed a high and selective activity as inhibitors of cysteine proteases. A pair of enantiomers of a tellurane showed different activities against Human Catepsin B due to a stereochemical dependence in the enzyme/inhibitor interaction. The second part of the present work deals with the development of the ring opening reaction of aziridines by organometallic reagents of copper prepared from vinylic and arylic tellurides. These reactions led to homoallylic and homobenzylic amine derivatives. Finally, the reactivity of 2-alkenyl aziridines was studied towards a series of organometallic reagents of lithium, magnesium, copper and zinc which biased the regio- and stereoselectivities of the ring opening reactions.

No description available.

Les glicosidases que hidrolitzen els substrats amb retenció de configuració segueixen un mecanisme general en què després d'una primera etapa d'associació enzim-lligand s'encadenen dues etapes catalítiques que porten a la hidròlisi del substrat conservant la configuració del carboni anomèric en el nou extrem generat. En el present treball es comprova a través d'estudis mecanístics, principalment estudis en estat preestacionari i anàlisis de Hammett, que amb aquest mecanisme tan senzill no es pot descriure correctament l'activitat catalítica de la 1,3-1,4-β-glucanasa de Bacillus licheniformis, i es proposa el mecanisme que es mostra a continuació: on els complexos enzim-substrat adopten dues conformacions productives (SES* i SES**) i on el balanç entre aquestes dues conformacions en funció del substrat explica els diferents comportaments cinètics en estat estacionari i preestacionari.Un estudi en profunditat sobre la importància que exerceix la interacció entre l'enzim i l'hidroxil a C2 de la unitat de glucopiranosa que ocupa el subseti -1 demostra que en el cas de la 1,3-1,4-β-glucanasa de Bacillus licheniformis aquesta interacció no juga el paper rellevant que s'ha observat en altres β-glicosidases que actuen amb retenció de configuració.L'estudi de la reacció d'hidratació del glical G4G3G' catalitzada per la 1,3-1,4-β-glucanasa de Bacillus licheniformis permet proposar que hi ha un canvi en el residu que fa el paper d'àcid general. De manera que es proposa que l'Asp136 que en la reacció d'hidròlisi de substrats ajuda al posicionament dels residus catalítics i juga un paper en la regulació dels seus pKa, és el residu que fa d'àcid general en la reacció d'hidratació de glicals. / Las glicosidasas que hidrolizan substratos con retención de configuración siguen un mecanismo general en que después de una primera etapa de asociación enzima-ligando se encadenan dos etapas catalíticas que llevan a la hidrólisis del substrato conservando la configuración del carbono anomérico en el nuevo extremo generado. En el presente trabajo se comprueba a través de estudios mecanísticos, principalmente estudios en estado pre-estacionario y análisis de Hammett, que con este mecanismo tan sencillo no se puede describir correctamente la actividad catalítica de la 1,3-1,4-β-glucanasa de Bacillus licheniformis, y se propone el mecanismo que se muestra a continuación: donde los complejos enzima-substrato adoptan dos conformaciones productivas (SES* y SES**) y donde el balance entre estas dos conformaciones en función del substrato explica los diferentes comportamientos cinéticos en estado estacionario y pre-estacionario.Un estudio en profundidad sobre la importancia que ejerce la interacción entre el enzima y el hidroxilo en C2 de la unidad de glucopiranosa que ocupa el subsitio -1 demuestra que en el caso de la 1,3-1,4-β-glucanasa de Bacillus licheniformis esta interacción no juega el papel relevante que se ha observado en otras β-glicosidasas que actuan con retención de configuración.El estudio de la reacción de hidratación del glical G4G3G' catalizada por la 1,3-1,4-β-glucanasa de Bacillus licheniformis permite proponer que hay un cambio en el residu que ejerce el papel de ácido general. De manera que se propone que el Asp136 que en la reacción de hidrólisis de substratos ayuda en el posicionamiento de los resíduos catalíticos y juega un papel en la regulación de sus pKa, es el resíduo que actúa de ácido general en la reacción de hidratación de glicales. / Retaining glycosidases follow a general mechanism in which the first enzime-ligand association is followed by two catalytic steps that render the product of hydrolysis with the same anomeric configuration as the starting material. In the present work we demonstrate using mechanistic studies, basically pre-steady state kinetics and Hammett analysis, that this mechanism is too simple to properly describe the catalytic activity of Bacillus licheniformis 1,3-1,4-β-glucanase, and the following mechanism is proposed: In this mechanism, the enzim-substrate complexes adopt two productive conformations (SES* and SES**) and the balance between these two conformations depending on the nature of the substrate explains the diferent behaviours observed in pre-steady and steady state kinetics.A deep study on the importance of the interaction between the enzyme and the hydroxyl group at C2 of the glucopyranose residue that occupies the -1 subsite demonstrates that in Bacillus licheniformis 1,3-1,4-β-glucanase this interaction is not the key interaction observed in other retaining β-glycosidases.The study of the G4G3G' glical hydration catalysed by the Bacillus licheniformis 1,3-1,4-β-glucanase let us propose that there is a change in the residue that acts as a general acid. We propose that Asp136, that plays a role positioning the catalytic residues and modulating their pKa in the hydrolysis reaction, acts as the general acid in the hydration of glycals.

No description available.

A primeira parte desta tese aborda estudos sobre a reatividade de compostos de telúrio eletrofílicos, principalmente tetracloreto de telúrio e tricloretos aromáticos de telúrio. Novos aspectos da reatividade de TeCl4 frente a alcinos e algumas acetofenonas foram observados e, a partir da elucidação estrutural dos compostos obtidos, por cristalografia, uma racionalização mecanística foi proposta para cada caso. As proposições apresentadas encontraram respaldo com a detecção de intermediários transientes por estudos de espectrometria de massas com ionização por electron-spray (ESI-MS/MS). Além de novos aspectos da química do Telúrio, os compostos preparados encontraram aplicação como potentes e seletivos inibidores de cisteíno proteases. Com esta aplicação estabelecida, foram sintetizadas ambos os enantiômeros de uma telurana e a atividade inibitória destas frente a Catepsina B mostrou dependência da estereoquímica devido a dependência estereoquímica da interação entre a enzima e o inibidor. A segunda parte deste trabalho trata do desenvolvimento da reação de abertura de anel de aziridinas por reagentes organometálicos de cobre derivados de teluretos vinílicos e arílicos que resultaram em derivados de aminas homoalílicas ou homobenzílicas. Em seguida, a reatividade de aziridinas alílicas foi estudada frente a uma série de reagentes organometálicos de lítio, magnésio, cobre e zinco que mostraram influenciar a regio- e estereosseletividades das reações de abertura. / The first part of this thesis deals with the study of the reactivity of electrophilic tellurium compounds, mainly tellurium tetrachloride and aromatic tellurium trichlorides. New aspects of the reactivity of TeCl4 towards alkynes and some acetophenones were disclosed. A mechanistic rationale for each of the processes studied was possible by the determination of the stereochemistry for each product by monocrystal X-ray diffraction analysis. The proposition of the formation of cationic intermediates in the addition reaction of TeCl4 to alkynes was corroborated by the detection and characterization of transient intermediates by ESI-MS/MS experiments. Besides the new aspects of the Tellurium chemistry found, the prepared compounds showed a high and selective activity as inhibitors of cysteine proteases. A pair of enantiomers of a tellurane showed different activities against Human Catepsin B due to a stereochemical dependence in the enzyme/inhibitor interaction. The second part of the present work deals with the development of the ring opening reaction of aziridines by organometallic reagents of copper prepared from vinylic and arylic tellurides. These reactions led to homoallylic and homobenzylic amine derivatives. Finally, the reactivity of 2-alkenyl aziridines was studied towards a series of organometallic reagents of lithium, magnesium, copper and zinc which biased the regio- and stereoselectivities of the ring opening reactions.