Den svenska hälso- och sjukvården har begränsade resurser vilket kräver att prioriteringar görsför att resurserna ska fördelas så effektivt och rättvist som möjligt. En reell prioriteringssituationdär avvägningen mellan effektivitet och rättvisa blir särskilt tydlig är vid beslut om subventionav förskrivningsläkemedel. När ett sådant prioriteringsbeslut fattas är det relevant att undersökavad resurserna som krävs för en prioriterad behandling i stället hade kunnat generera i form avannan vård, det vill säga att kvantifiera både vinster och förluster i termer av hälsa. I dennauppsats granskas därför beslut om subvention av läkemedel som fattats av Tandvårds- ochläkemedelsförmånsverket (TLV) mellan 2017 och 2022, för att kvantifiera hur avvägningenmellan effektivitet och rättvisa kan ha påverkat den totala hälsan i Sverige. Med hjälp av etttröskelvärde för marginalproduktiviteten i hälso- och sjukvården på 250 000 kronor beräknasnettohälsoeffekten av TLVs beslut. Resultaten visar att av totalt 49 granskade beslut omsubvention av läkemedel har det i 32 fall gjorts en avvägning mellan effektivitet och rättvisa.Endast åtta av besluten har en positiv nettohälsoeffekt, där hälso- och sjukvårdssystemetgenererar mer hälsa än det förlorar till följd av TLVs beslut. För de 17 läkemedel där antaletpatienter som berörs av ett beslut angetts kan en negativ nettohälsoeffekt på -24 060 år i fullhälsa (QALYs) konstateras. Cirka 84 % av de observerade besluten har en negativnettohälsoeffekt och har därmed också påverkat den totala hälsan i Sverige negativt. Resultatendiskuteras sedan med stöd av den svenska etiska plattformen och olika teorier om distributivrättvisa, vilka är möjliga anledningar till att resultatet ser ut som det gör. Att uttrycka kostnadoch effekt i termer av hälsa, som nettohälsoeffekten, tydliggör beslutsfattandet och är en starttill en mer transparent fördelning av samhällets begränsade resurser. Vårt förslag är att införaberäkning av nettohälsoeffekten som komplement till nuvarande metod i svenskahälsoekonomiska utvärderingar. / The Swedish healthcare system has limited resources which requires prioritization in order todistribute resources as efficiently and fairly as possible. A real prioritization situation where thetrade-off between efficiency and fairness becomes particularly clear is when deciding tosubsidize prescription drugs. When such prioritization decisions are made, it is relevant toexamine what the resources required for a prioritized treatment could instead have generated inthe form of other care, i.e., to quantify both gains and losses in terms of health. This thesistherefore examines decisions on subsidizing pharmaceuticals made by the Swedish Dental andPharmaceutical Benefits Agency (TLV) between 2017 and 2022, to quantify how the trade-offbetween efficiency and equity may have affected the overall health in Sweden. Using athreshold value for marginal productivity in health care of 250 000 SEK, calculations are madeto determine the Net Health Benefit. The results show that out of a total of 49 revieweddecisions on the subsidization of pharmaceuticals, a trade-off between efficiency and fairnesshas been made in 32 of these. Only eight of the decisions have a positive net health effect, wherethe healthcare system gains more health than it loses. For the 17 drugs where the number ofpatients affected by the decision could be quantified, a negative total Net Health Benefit of -24,060 years of full health (QALYs) was calculated. Approximately 84 % of the observeddecisions have a negative Net Health Benefit and have thus also had a negative impact onoverall health in Sweden. The results are then discussed with support of the Swedish ethicalplatform and various theories concerning distributive justice, which are possible reasons for theresults. Expressing cost and impact in terms of health, as the Net Health Benefit, clarifiesdecision-making and is a start towards a more transparent distribution of society's limitedresources. Our proposal is to introduce calculation of the Net Health Benefit as a complementto the current method in Swedish health economic evaluations.

Essay I: In January, 2005, the EU launched the first international emissions trading system (EU ETS), aimed at reducing carbon emissions in a cost-effective way by means of a market-based instrument. In this paper, we use the treatment/control, before/after design of the natural experiment approach to investigate the treatment effect of the EU ETS on the profitability of a sample of Swedish energy firms in 2005 and 2006. We also investigate whether under-cap and over-cap firms respond differently to the EU ETS. The estimation results in general suggest no significant impact in 2005 and a negative significant impact in 2006. The sub-sample analysis suggests that profitability of under-cap and over-cap firms were affected differently by the EU ETS in 2005, but not in 2006. Essay II: The paper empirically explores the possible causes behind electricity price jumps in the Nordic electricity market, Nord Pool. A time-series model (a mixed GARCH-EARJI jump model) capturing the common statistical features of electricity prices is used to identify price jumps. By the model, a categorical variable is defined distinguishing no, positive and negative jumps. The causes for the jumps are then explored through the use of ordered probit models in a second stage. The empirical results indicate that the structure of the market plays an important role in whether shocks in the demand and supply for electricity translate into price jumps. Essay III: Scientific evidence indicates that human development faces multiple and interacting regime-switching environmental thresholds such as climate change, ocean acidification and biodiversity loss. And crossing one or more such thresholds would trigger rapid and large changes in our life-support system with widespread consequences. This paper attempts to study the effects of such thresholds on human well-being in a growth theoretical framework. We derive the accounting prices of pollution stocks such as the concentration of greenhouse gases for the risk of triggering catastrophic events, which are needed for conducting a dynamic cost-benefit analysis. We first analyze a simple model with a single threshold and then extend it to a planar system with correlated double thresholds with a joint probability distribution. the results can be applied for analyzing global climate change and ocean acidification risks, which are highlighted in a Nature article by Rockström et al. (2009). Essay IV: Lump-sum transfers as a means of tackling climate change are mainly perceived as a theoretical construct to achieve the first best Pareto optimum. The previous literature on lump-sum transfers normally focuses on the two polar cases: the absence of lump-sum transfers and perfect or unconstrained lump-sum transfers, leaving the middle way aside. In this paper, we attempt to explore the unmarked part by developing a model where transfer costs are explicitly taken into account. We show that whether the Pareto optimum characterized by the equalization of marginal abatement costs is attainable depends on the formation of transfer costs. When the marginal transfer cost is zero, the separability of equity and efficiency under perfect lump-sum transfers is kept. However, when the marginal transfer cost is positive, the optimum with equalization of marginal abatement costs is neither attainable, nor desirable. We also simulate a policy experiment in China to review the optimal abatement and transfer patterns between China's provinces within a framework of imperfect lump-sum transfers. The highlighted welfare gains is supportive of considering lump-sum transfers as a national climate change policy.

Este estudo tem por objetivo analisar e reconstruir os fundamentos da Teoria da Tributação e do Direito Tributário que regem a incidência do Imposto de Renda sobre operações conduzidas nos mercados financeiro e de capitais. Examinam-se, num primeiro momento, os preceitos norteadores da eqüidade, eficiência (nos seus dois vieses de neutralidade e desenvolvimento), simplicidade e conveniência, verificando-se em que medida o ordenamento jurídico-tributário posto está em consonância com a Teoria da Tributação. Na seara da Teoria da Tributação, destaque é dado ao trade-off (ou dilema) entre eficiência e eqüidade relativo à tributação da renda auferida nos mercados. Em momento subseqüente, analisam-se as regras constitucionais e complementares que moldam a incidência do Imposto de Renda e a maneira pela qual princípios e mandamentos constitucionais, concernentes à seara tributária ou não, atuam em relação à tributação da renda obtida nos mercados financeiro e de capitais. Nessa toada, papel de relevo possui a relação conflituosa existente entre o mandamento da tributação conforme a capacidade contributiva e a possibilidade de instituição de normas tributárias indutoras visando a objetivos extrafiscais. / This paper aims at analyzing and reconstructing the fundamentals of the Taxation Theory and of the Tax Law that guide the assessment of the Income Tax on transactions carried out within the financial and capital markets. At a first moment, we examine the guiding precepts of equity, efficiency (in its two aspects of neutrality and development), simplicity and convenience, then verifying in what measure the legislation in force is adequate in light of the Taxation Theory. In the field of the Taxation Theory, we highlight the trade-off between efficiency and equity in relation to the taxation of the income obtained in the markets. Afterwards, we analyze the constitutional and complementary rules that shape the assessment of the Income Tax and the manner by which tax and non-tax constitutional principles and guidelines act as regards the taxation of the income obtained within the financial and capital markets. In this sense, a paramount role shall be attributed to the conflictive relation between the ability-to-pay rule and the possibility of enacting tax norms aiming at non-fiscal purposes.

Este estudo tem por objetivo analisar e reconstruir os fundamentos da Teoria da Tributação e do Direito Tributário que regem a incidência do Imposto de Renda sobre operações conduzidas nos mercados financeiro e de capitais. Examinam-se, num primeiro momento, os preceitos norteadores da eqüidade, eficiência (nos seus dois vieses de neutralidade e desenvolvimento), simplicidade e conveniência, verificando-se em que medida o ordenamento jurídico-tributário posto está em consonância com a Teoria da Tributação. Na seara da Teoria da Tributação, destaque é dado ao trade-off (ou dilema) entre eficiência e eqüidade relativo à tributação da renda auferida nos mercados. Em momento subseqüente, analisam-se as regras constitucionais e complementares que moldam a incidência do Imposto de Renda e a maneira pela qual princípios e mandamentos constitucionais, concernentes à seara tributária ou não, atuam em relação à tributação da renda obtida nos mercados financeiro e de capitais. Nessa toada, papel de relevo possui a relação conflituosa existente entre o mandamento da tributação conforme a capacidade contributiva e a possibilidade de instituição de normas tributárias indutoras visando a objetivos extrafiscais. / This paper aims at analyzing and reconstructing the fundamentals of the Taxation Theory and of the Tax Law that guide the assessment of the Income Tax on transactions carried out within the financial and capital markets. At a first moment, we examine the guiding precepts of equity, efficiency (in its two aspects of neutrality and development), simplicity and convenience, then verifying in what measure the legislation in force is adequate in light of the Taxation Theory. In the field of the Taxation Theory, we highlight the trade-off between efficiency and equity in relation to the taxation of the income obtained in the markets. Afterwards, we analyze the constitutional and complementary rules that shape the assessment of the Income Tax and the manner by which tax and non-tax constitutional principles and guidelines act as regards the taxation of the income obtained within the financial and capital markets. In this sense, a paramount role shall be attributed to the conflictive relation between the ability-to-pay rule and the possibility of enacting tax norms aiming at non-fiscal purposes.