Memoria para optar al Titulo Profesional de Médico Veterinario / Se estudió la capacidad de dos fuentes de fitoestrógenos para inducir impronta hormonal (hormonal imprinting) en rata Sprague-Dawley macho adulto. Para ello, se administró genisteína (3mg/kg peso vivo), o un extracto etanólico, obtenido a partir de Trifolium pratense cultivar “Pawera”, a ratas en su día 15 y 18 de preñez, las que fueron mantenidas con dieta libre de fitoestrógenos desde una semana antes de la cruza. Se utilizaron los machos de la camada obtenida (F1), los que se mantuvieron con dieta libre de fitoestrógenos durante todo el estudio. Al día 60 de vida, recibieron 17-β-Estradiol (E2) (100 μg/Kg p.v.); en el día 63 se extrajeron los testículos y caudas epididimarias para observar los efectos sobre la morfología, cantidad y viabilidad de los espermatozoides, y para medir el perímetro basal, luminal y alto del túbulo seminífero. Los grupos control recibieron el vehículo de la genisteína o del extracto. Los resultados demostraron que los machos F1 expuestos prenatalmente al extracto o la genisteína y a E2 a los 60 días de edad, presentaron un incremento en el número de espermatozoides presentes en la cauda epididimaria, aumento que fue mayor en los expuestos a genisteína. El perímetro luminal aumentó producto de la impronta con genisteína y no varió frente al tratamiento con E2. Los animales improntados con extracto y tratados con E2, presentaron lúmenes más distendidos. El alto del epitelio seminífero disminuyó debido a la impronta con genisteína o extracto, independiente del tratamiento con E2. No se observaron modificaciones a nivel de perímetro basal del túbulo seminífero, morfología ni viabilidad de los espermatozoides. A la luz de los resultados obtenidos, se propone que crías macho de hembras alimentadas con dietas bajas en fitoestrógenos, podrían ser incapaces de responder a E2 en la vida adulta, y por lo tanto, no aumentarían su número de espermatozoides

A rising percentage of women with risk factors for cardiovascular disease (CVD) reach menopause and experience postmenopausal symptoms. In consequence they require assessment concerning the appropriate combination and safety of a hormone replacement therapy. Clinical trials using the combination of equine estrogens and medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA) reported an increased risk of thromboembolic events and no cardiovascular protective effects in women receiving this type of hormone replacement therapy. However unopposed estradiol and different regimes estrogens/progestins in vitro and in animal studies have proved to be beneficial for the cardiovascular system. Thus it is possible that the negative outcomes of the clinical trials are an exclusive feature of the regime equine estrogens plus MPA. The present study was initiated to evaluate the cardiovascular effects and possible mechanism of damage of the regime MPA plus 17ß-estradiol in comparison to unopposed 17ß-estradiol during cardiac disease. The role of 17ß-estradiol and MPA during left ventricular dysfunction and chronic heart failure was studied in female Wistar rats that received myocardial infarction. After 8 weeks of treatment the combination of MPA plus estradiol aggravated left ventricular remodelling and dysfunction as judged by increased heart weight, elevated left ventricular end diastolic pressure and decreased left ventricular fractional shortening, effects that were accompanied by increase left ventricular oxidative stress and expression of rac 1 and p67phox regulatory subunits of the NADPH oxidase. In contrast ovariectomy as well as 17ß- estradiol supplementation conferred neutral effects on cardiac function and remodelling post myocardial infarction. Suggesting that the aggravating symptoms of the regime MPA plus 17ß –estradiol are inherent to this pharmacological regime and are not a class effect of the progesterone receptor ligands and are neither due to inhibition of estradiol beneficial effects. Considering that aldosterone plays an important role in the development and aggravation of cardiovascular disease the cardiovascular effects of MPA plus 17ß –estradiol was studied in a model of mineralocorticoid receptor activation and compared to the effects of regimes based in drospirenone, a new progestin with antimineralocorticoid properties. The complex pattern of cardiovascular injury in ovariectomized Wistar rats induced by 8 weeks of continuous chronic aldosterone infusion and high-salt diet was significantly attenuated in sham-ovariectomized rats and by coadministration of 17 ß-estradiol in ovariectomized animals. The beneficial role of 17 ß-estradiol on blood pressure, cardiac hypertrophy, vascular osteopontin expression and perivascular fibrosis was completely abrogated by coadministration of MPA. In contrast, drospirenone was either neutral or additive to 17 ß-estradiol in protecting against aldosterone salt-induced cardiovascular injury and inflammation. Taking into account that the kidney plays a major role for the development and aggravation of hypertension a further characterization of fluid balance, renal morphology and renal gene expression in the aldosterone salt treated rats was conducted. Aldo-salt treatment resulted in remnant kidney hypertrophy without structural damage, effects that were not modified by 17 ß-estradiol. However combination of MPA with 17 ß-estradiol enhanced kidney hypertrophy, fluid turnover, renal sodium retention and potassium excretion and was associated with increased renal ENaC expression, extensive renal lesions, tubular damage and enhanced p67phox expression and protein tyrosin nitrosylation. Different to the protective effects of drospirenone that included a complete blockade of kidney hypertrophy and sodium retention and enhanced renal expression of angiotensin II type-2 receptors. Therefore the loss of 17 ß-estradiol cardiovascular beneficial effects and the renal harmful effects in the aldosterone salt treated rats receiving MPA can not be extrapolated to other progestins. Indeed drospirenone conferred protective effects due to its antimineralocorticoid properties. In conclusion, the choice of specific synthetic progestins has profound implications on the development of cardiovascular and renal injury; MPA aggravated cardiac disease, which contributes to explain the adverse outcomes of clinical trials on the prevention of cardiovascular disease by combined estrogen and MPA treatment. / Eine zunehmende Zahl postmenopausaler Frauen mit kardiovaskulären Risikofaktoren leidet unter menopausalen Beschwerden. Diese Patientinnen benötigen daher eine Beratung hinsichtlich der Sicherheit einer post-menopausalen Hormonersatz-THerapie da klinische Studien ein gehäuftes Auftreten thromboembolischer Ereignisse unter einer kombinierten Gabe von Östrogenen und Medroxyprogesteron Acetat (MPA) nachgewiesen haben. Zudem war eine Protektion gegen kardiovaskuläre Erkrankungen, die nach der Menopause gehäuft auftreten, nicht nachweisbar. Im Gegensatz hierzu belegt eine Vielzahl von experimentellen Studien eine günstige Wirkung einer alleinigen Östrogensubstitution. Es erscheint daher möglich, dass die ungünstigen Wirkungen einer Hormonersatz-Therapie im Wesentlichen auf die Progesteron Komponente zurückzuführen ist, welche bei Frauen mit intaktem Uterus jedoch erforderlich ist um einer Endometriumhyperplasie vorzubeugen. Wenige experimentelle Studien haben bislang die Wirkungen unterschiedlicher, synthetischer Progestine im Herz- Kreislaufsystem untersucht. In der vorliegenden Studie war es daher erstmalig die Wirkung einer alleinigen Gabe von Östradiol mit einer kombinierten Applikation von Östradiol und MPA nach experimentellem Myokardinfarkt bei weiblichen Ratten verglichen. Die Kombination von Östradiol und MPA, nicht jedoch Östradiol allein oder natives Progesteron, führte zu einer Verschlechterung myokardialer Umbauprozesse (remodeling) welches in einer weiteren Verschlechterung der linksventrikulären Pumpfunktion resultierte. Diese sehr ungünstigen funktionellen Effekte waren mit einer vermehrten Generierung freier Sauerstoffradikale durch NADPH Oxidasen verbunden. Diese Beobachtungen unterstützen die Hypothese, dass MPA möglicherweise einen wesentlichen Anteil an den ungünstigen Wirkungen einer Hormonersatz-Therapie hat. Hierbei handelt es sich nicht um einen Klassen-Effekt aller Progestine sondern um eine spezifische Eigenschaft von MPA. Mineralokortikoid-Rezeptoren, welche durch Aldosteron und durch MPA aktiviert werden, besitzen auch eine wesentliche Funktion für pathologische Umbauprozesse im Myokard und im Gefäßsystem. Daher wurde in einem weiteren Ansatz die Frage untersucht, ob Östrogene und unterschiedliche synthetische Progestine (MPA, Drospirenon) aldosteron-gesteuerte, pathologische Umbauprozesse im Herzkreislaufsystem möglicherweise gegensinnig beeinflussen. Nach 8-wöchiger Aldosteron-Salz Behandlung zeigten zuvor normotensive Wistar Ratten eine arterielle Hypertonie, eine Myokardhypertrophie sowie ausgeprägte, perivaskuläre inflammatorisch-fibrosierende Veränderungen im Myokard und der Aorta. Diese wurden durch eine Ovarektomie verstärkt und durch die Substitution von Östradiol gemindert. Die Kombination von Östradiol und MPA, nicht jedoch von Östradiol und Drospirenon führte zu einer massiven Verstärkung des kardiovaskulären remoidelings. Gleichsinnige Beobachtungen wurden auch an den Nieren der Tiere gemacht; MPA, nicht jedoch DRSP, induzierte eine massive Nephropathie mit extensiver Glomerulosklerose, inflammatorischen Infiltraten und einer stark ausgeprägten Tubulo- und Vaskulopathie. Die ungünstigen Effekte von MPA waren auch hier wiederum mit einer verstärkten Expression und Aktivität der NADPH Oxidase verbunden. An der Niere MPA behandelter Tiere wurde zudem eine verstärkte Expression des endothelialen Natrium Kanals (ENaC) nachgewiesen, welche als kausaler Mechanismus der unter MPA exzessiv gesteigerten Natriumresorption in Betracht kommt. Drospirenon, welches neben seiner Wirkung als Progestin auch eine starke anti-mineralokortikoide Wirkung besitzt, führte in Kombination mit Östradiol zu einer kompletten Normalisierung des kardiovaskulären und renalen Phänotyps. Zusammenfassend besitzt die Wahl eines spezifischen, synthetischen Progestins (MPA, DRSP) einen hohen Stellenwert für die Sicherheit und Effizienz einer Hormonersatz-Therapie bei Patientinnen mit bereits bestehenden Herz- Kreislauferkrankungen zu besitzen. Neuere Progestine (DRSP) mit einem genau definierten Wirkungsspektrum könnten auch klinisch zu einer besseren Verträglichkeit einer HRT führen und die protektiven Wirkungen von Östrogenen unterstützen. Hierzu sind weitere klinische und experimentelle Untersuchungen erforderlich.

Pacientes que sobrevivem a uma parada cardíaca ou a um AVE demonstram uma alta incidência de prejuízos neurológicos como resultado do dano neuronal isquêmico tardio. Uma intervenção farmacológica apropriada durante a janela terapêutica entre o recomeço do fluxo sanguíneo normal e o início do dano neuronal seria de grande benefício, porém as abordagens experimentais atuais são limitadas neste sentido. Ao longo da última década, dados provenientes de muitos estudos apoiam a ideia que estrógenos promovem efeitos neuroprotetores em uma variedade de doenças neurodegenerativas, incluindo a isquemia cerebral global. O potente hormônio feminino 17-β-estradiol (E2) é neuroprotetor em uma variedade de modelos celulares e animais de isquemia, contudo os paraefeitos inerentes a sua terapêutica não permitem seu uso em larga escala. Considerando a estrutura e mecanismo de ação similares dos fitoestrogênios no SNC, o objetivo deste estudo foi verificar os efeitos neuroprotetores de coumestrol, um potente isoflavonóide com alta afinidade de ligação por ambos os receptores de estrogênio (ERs) e alto potencial antioxidante, contra a neurodegeneração geralmente encontrada em eventos isquêmicos. Nós demonstramos aqui que coumestrol foi hábil em resgatar a morte neuronal na subárea CA1 hipocampal induzida pela isquemia global em ratas fêmeas em uma avaliação de sobrevivência celular, incluindo 24h pós-isquemia, e que esta neuroproteção parece ser mediada através dos ERs. Em um próximo passo, avaliamos se a pré-administração de coumestrol poderia reverter a atividade da bomba de Na+/K+-ATPase, cuja atividade se encontra prejudicada após insultos isquêmicos, e se sua ação seria igualmente efetiva quando administrado em ratos machos. A análise demonstrou que coumestrol foi eficiente em restaurar a atividade da Na+/K+-ATPase em todos os tempos avaliados, incluindo 24h pós-isquemia. A efetividade em prevenir a morte neuronal em ratos machos foi igualmente observada em todos os tempos de administração, incluindo 24h pós-isquemia. As correspondências neuroprotetoras no tempo de 24h na neuroproteção sugerem um possível mecanismo pelo qual coumestrol possa estar agindo para promover neuroproteção em longo prazo. Sabendo que a morte neuronal tardia na isquemia global está associada com a redução na expressão de GluR2 na região CA1 pouco antes do início da morte celular, examinamos o possível papel de coumestrol na expressão de GluR2 em camundongos machos em três diferentes tempos pós-isquemia. O evento isquêmico reduziu os níveis proteicos de GluR2 hipocampais em todos os tempos avaliados e o tratamento com coumestrol foi efetivo em prevenir essa redução. Adicionalmente, estando consciente que a excitotoxicidade é um dos mecanismos celulares ligados à neurodegeneração associada à isquemia, buscou-se determinar se coumestrol poderia promover neuroproteção in vitro, contra a excitotoxicidade induzida por NMDA em culturas neuronais hipocampais. Nós observamos que coumestrol promoveu neuroproteção, porém somente quando sua administração foi perto do evento excitotóxico. Atribuímos esta inabilidade em conferir neuroproteção em longo prazo devido à presença do inibidor de células gliais presente na cultura neuronal, que limita a proliferação glial em 10% ou menos, sugerindo o sistema glial como um importante coadjuvante no contexto da neuroproteção em longo prazo conferida por coumestrol. Estendendo nossa investigação para uma avaliação comportamental, examinamos se coumestrol poderia ser igualmente eficaz em prevenir os déficits de memória presentes após um insulto isquêmico. A análise histológica confirmou a neuroproteção promovida pela administração de coumestrol como esperado, e sua terapêutica foi bem sucedida em reverter os déficits de memória promovidos pela isquemia global. Portanto, esses resultados coletivos indicam que coumestrol desperta novas perspectivas dentro da terapêutica da isquemia global e abre novas possibilidades na investigação no contexto dos acidentes vasculares encefálicos. / Patients who survive cardiac arrest or stroke demonstrate a high incidence of neurological impairment as a result of delayed ischemic neuronal damage. Proper pharmacological intervention during the therapeutic window between the resumption of normal blood flow and the onset of neuronal damage would be of great benefit, but the current experimental approaches have yielded only limited success. Over the last decade, data from many studies support the idea that estrogens provide neuroprotective effects in a variety of neurodegenerative diseases, including cerebral global ischemia. The potent feminizing hormone 17-β-estradiol (E2) is neuroprotective in a host of cell and animal models of stroke, however the side effects inherent its therapeutics doesn’t allow its use in a large scale. Considering the similar structure of phytoestrogens and its similar actions within the CNS, the aim of this study was verify the neuroprotective effects of coumestrol, a potent isoflavonoid with high binding affinities for both estrogen receptors (ERs) and significant antioxidant activity, against neurodegeneration usually observed in global ischemic events. We demonstrate here that coumestrol was able to rescue neuronal death in the hippocampal CA1 subfield induced by global ischemia in female rats in a cell survival evaluation, including 24h after ischemia, and its neuroprotective actions seems to be through the ERs. In a next step, we evaluated if coumestrol pre-administration could rescue the Na+/K+-ATPase activity that is found severely impaired after ischemic insults, and if its administration would be equally neuroprotective in male rats. The analysis showed that coumestrol was able to reverse the Na+/K+-ATPase activity in all times of evaluation, including 24h after ischemia. The effectiveness in preventing neuronal death in male rats was also observed in all time-points evaluated, including 24h after ischemia. These two 24h correspondence in neuroprotection suggests one possible mechanism by which coumestrol could be acting to afford neuroprotection in a long term. Knowing that the delayed neuronal death in global ischemia is associated with a reduced GluR2 expression in CA1 hippocampal field just before the cell death onset, we examined the possible role of coumestrol at the level of GluR2 expression of male mice in three different time-points after ischemia. The ischemic event induced high suppression of GluR2 in all evaluated times and coumestrol pre-treatment was able in preventing this reduction. In addition, being aware that excitotoxicity is one of the cellular mechanisms linked to cerebral ischemic neurodegeneration, we sought to determine if coumestrol could be neuroprotective in vitro as well, against a NMDA-induced excitotoxicity in hippocampal neuronal culture. We observed that coumestrol was skilled to afford neuroprotection only when its administration was next to the excitotoxic event. We attribute this longest reach inability of neuroprotection due the glial inhibitor present in the neuronal culture, which limits the glial cells proliferation in 10% or less, suggesting the glial system as an important adjuvant in the context of the coumestrol longer therapeutic window. Extending our investigation in a behavior assessment, we examined if the coumestrol could be also virtuous in preventing the memory deficits present after an ischemic insult. The histological analysis confirmed the reduction in neuronal loss afforded by coumestrol administration as expected, and its pre ischemic administration was able to rescue the memory impairment promoted by the global ischemia. Therefore, our collective results indicate that coumestrol spread new perspectives in the context of global ischemia therapeutics and unlock new possibilities for the stroke investigation.

The hormone withdrawal hypothesis of postpartum depression (PPD) attributes the onset of depressive symptoms to the rapid postpartum withdrawal of the ovarian hormones estradiol and progesterone that occurs during the first five days following childbirth. Although a number of human and non-human animal studies have supported the hormone withdrawal hypothesis, several studies have failed to support this hypothesis. The current research was designed to test the hormone withdrawal hypothesis of PPD using a novel translational research design that includes a series of experimental animal studies and a longitudinal human study. It was hypothesized that estradiol and progesterone withdrawal would cause increased behavioral despair, anhedonia, and anxiety in the rodent studies. In the human study, it was hypothesized that 1) decreases in estradiol would be associated with increases in negative affect and decreases in positive affect; 2) decreases in progesterone would be associated with increases in anxiety; and 3) these associations would be stronger in women with a past episode of PPD compared to those without a history of PPD. In the animal studies, rats were ovariectomized and administered ovarian hormones or placebo (i.e., hormone administration), followed by placebo only (i.e., withdrawal). Animals in these experiments were given the forced-swim test to measure behavioral despair; lateral hypothalamic self- stimulation to measure anhedonia; or the elevated plus maze to measure anxiety. In the human study, women made mood ratings and collected saliva samples daily starting in the third trimester and continuing until 10 days postpartum. In the animal studies, withdrawal from estradiol alone was associated with behavioral despair (t=2.26, p=.02) and anhedonia (t=-3.2, p=.007). In the human study, there a significant prospective association between estradiol and negative affect in women who developed PPD (r=-0.34, p<.001). This association, when combined with group status (i.e., history of PPD versus no history of depression), was used to correctly identify 100% of women who developed PPD. The results of this project contribute to evidence of a neurobiological basis for PPD. Estradiol withdrawal represents a promising candidate for further study, particularly with regard to individual differences in sensitivity to hormone withdrawal.

No description available.

Thesis (M.S.)--West Virginia University, 2006. / Title from document title page. Document formatted into pages; contains vi, 86 p. : ill. (some col.). Vita. Includes abstract. Includes bibliographical references (p. 75-85).

Male rat sexual behavior requires aromatization of testosterone (T) to estradiol (E2) in the medial preoptic area (MPO) where estrogen receptors (ER) exist in two isoforms, ERα and ERβ. We hypothesized that E2 acts through estrogen receptor α (ERα) in the MPO to promote male mating behavior. Four groups of male rats were castrated, administered DHT s.c. and bilateral MPO implants delivering either: cholesterol, E2, propyl pyrazole triol (PPT, ERα agonist), diarylpropionitrile (DPN, ER β agonist), or 1-methyl-4-phenyl pyridinium (MPP, ERα antagonist). Additional gonadally intact males received bilateral MPO DPN implants. PPT maintained sexual behavior equally as well as E2, whereas mating was not maintained by cholesterol or DPN MPO implants. Exogenous T did not reinstate mating in animals that received MPP MPO implants. These findings indicate that, in the MPO, ERα is necessary and sufficient to promote copulatory behavior in male rats and ERβ is not sufficient for mating.

Durant el desenvolupament de les malalties neurodegeneratives les neurones moren. Una de les conseqüències més comuns del desenvolupament de malalties neurodegeneratives és l'activació en la majoria d'elles del programa de mort cel·lular, conegut com apoptosi. El coneixement exhaustiu d'aquest programa apoptòtic és clau per poder abordar estratègies terapèutiques que puguin aturar l'avanç d'aquestes malalties.L'apoptosi és un procés fisiològic important durant el desenvolupament del SNC mantenint la homeòstasi cel·lular. El cerebel és una de les regions del cervell en la que aquest fenomen és especialment dramàtic. Durant el desenvolupament de les neurones granulars de cerebel (CGCs) pràcticament la meitat es perden durant el procés apoptòtic. Aquest fenomen pot mimetitzar-se in vitro, a partir d'un cultiu pur d'aquestes neurones. El cultiu primari de les CGCs és un model àmpliament utilitzat per a l'estudi de l'apoptosi, induint-la per deprivació de potassi. En aquest procés es pot produir un increment en les concentracions intracel·lulars de ceramida, implicada en aquest procés de mort.La ceramida és una molècula senyalitzadora implicada en diferents processos cel·lulars com la proliferació, senescència, diferenciació i aturada del cicle cel·lular. Durant els últims anys s'ha proposat que la ceramida podria tenir un paper més important com a regulador de la mort apoptòtica. Un dels nostres objectius va ser, mitjançant la utilització d'aquest model, caracteritzar el procés de mort apoptòtica per ceramida. Durant els últims anys s'han acumulat evidències suggerint que la exposició a estrògens disminueix el risc i retarda el principi de malalties neurodegeneratives com l'Alzheimer i el Parkinson, així com potencien la recuperació front a danys neurològics traumàtics com la isquèmia cerebral. Aquestes hormones poden realitzar aquestes funcions implicant diferents processos com la supervivència cel·lular, respostes regeneratives, creixement axonal, potenciació de la senyal sinàptica i neurogènesi.Els resultats de les nostres investigacions indiquen que: (1) la ceramida indueix apoptosi en CGCs activant tant la caspasa-9 com la caspasa-2; dues vies a priori paral·leles i que en aquesta mort apoptòtica, (2) la inhibició d'Akt i l'activació de les MAPK estan implicades. (3) L'estradiol (E2) no protegeix front l'apoptosi en les CGCs i l'absència d'activació d'Akt pot ser clau en aquesta falta de neuroprotecció. (4) L'absència de neuroprotecció podria deure's a que el receptor d'estrògens ER-? no interacciona amb el receptor d'IGF-I. (5) ER-? està localitzat en la membrana plasmàtica de les CGCs i media l'activació de ERK1/2 per E2. L'activació de la via clàssica de les MAPKs per E2 implica un mecanisme diferent d'acció per a E2 en el model de les CGCs. (6) L'E2 exerceix un efecte neuroprotector en les CGCs degut a les seves propietats com a molècula antioxidant. (7) L'activació de la via Src/Ras/ERK/CREB estaria relacionada amb fenòmens de plasticitat sinàptica i el manteniment de connexions entre neurones de les CGCs tot i que no seria suficient per protegir les CGCs de la mort apoptòtica.Malgrat que l'E2 no protegeix les CGCs de la mort apoptòtica, podria tenir gran rellevància el fet de conèixer com l'E2 posa en marxa mecanismes que desencadenin fenòmens de manteniment dendrític i disminució potencial de la vulnerabilitat de les neurones front a estímuls adversos, permetent poder incidir en un futur sobre models de malalties neurodegeneratives com l'Alzheimer o processos isquèmics, on el manteniment de les connexions dendrítiques existents i la generació de noves sinapsis, a més de mantenir la seva estructura, poden ser processos clau. / A lo largo del desarrollo de las enfermedades neurodegenerativas las neuronas mueren. Una de las consecuencias más comunes del desarrollo de enfermedades neurodegenerativas es la activación en la mayoría de ellas del programa de muerte celular, conocido como apoptosis. El conocimiento exhaustivo de este programa apoptótico es clave para poder abordar estrategias terapéuticas que puedan frenar el avance de estas enfermedades. La apoptosis es un proceso fisiológico importante durante el desarrollo del SNC manteniendo la homeóstasis celular. El cerebelo es una de las regiones del cerebro en la cual este fenómeno es especialmente dramático. Durante el desarrollo de las neuronas granulares de cerebelo (CGCs) prácticamente la mitad se pierden durante el proceso apoptótico. Este fenómeno puede mimetizarse in vitro, a partir de un cultivo puro de estas neuronas. El cultivo primario de las CGCs es un modelo ampliamente utilizado para el estudio de la apoptosis, induciéndola por deprivación de potasio. En este proceso se puede producir un incremento en las concentraciones intracelulares de ceramida, implicada en este proceso de muerte.La ceramida es una molécula señalizadora implicada en diferentes procesos celulares como la proliferación, senescencia, diferenciación y paro del ciclo celular. Durante los últimos años se ha propuesto que la ceramida podría tener un papel más importante como regulador de la muerte apoptótica. Uno de nuestros objetivos fue, mediante la utilización de este modelo, caracterizar el proceso de muerte apoptótica por ceramida.Durante los últimos años se han acumulado evidencias sugiriendo que la exposición a estrógenos disminuye el riesgo y retrasa el principio y desarrollo de enfermedades neurodegenerativas como el Alzheimer y el Parkinson, así como potencian la recuperación frente a daños neurológicos traumáticos como la isquemia cerebral. Estas hormonas pueden desempeñar estas funciones implicando diferentes procesos como la supervivencia celular, respuestas regenerativas, crecimiento axonal, potenciación de la señal sináptica y neurogénesis. Los resultados de nuestras investigaciones indican que: (1) la ceramida induce apoptosis en CGCs activando tanto la caspasa-9 como la caspasa-2; dos vías de muerte a priori paralelas y que en esta muerte apotótica, (2) la inhibición de Akt y la activación de las MAPKs están implicadas. (3) El estradiol (E2) no protege frente a la apoptosis en las CGCs y la ausencia de activación de Akt puede ser clave en esta falta de neuroprotección. (4) La ausencia de neuroprotección podría deberse a que el receptor de estrógenos ER-? no interacciona con el receptor de IGF-I. (5) ER-? está localizado en la membrana plasmática de las CGCs y media la activación de ERK1/2 por E2. La activación de la vía clásica de las MAPKs por E2 implica un mecanismo diferente de acción para E2 en el modelo de las CGCs. (6) El E2 ejerce un efecto neuroprotector en las CGCs debido a sus propiedades como molécula antioxidante. (7) La activación de la vía Src/Ras/ERK/CREB estaría relacionada con fenómenos de plasticidad sináptica y el matenimiento de conexiones entre neuronas de las CGCs aunque no sería suficiente para proteger las CGCs de la muerte apoptótica.A pesar de que el E2 no protege a las CGCs de la muerte apoptótica, podría tener gran relevancia el hecho de conocer cómo el E2 pone en marcha mecanismos que desencadenan fenómenos de mantenimiento dendrítico y disminución potencial de la vulnerabilidad de las neuronas frente a estímulos adversos, permitiendo poder incidir en un futuro sobre modelos de enfermedades neurodegenerativas como el Alzheimer o procesos isquémicos, donde el mantenimiento de las conexiones dendríticas existentes y la generación de nuevas sinapsis, además de mantener su estructura, pueden ser procesos clave. / Along neurodegenerative disease development, neurons die. One of the most common consequences of the development of neurodegenerative diseases is the activation, in the majority of them, of the cellular death program, known as apoptosis. The exhaustive knowledge of apoptotic programme is a key to approach new therapeutical strategies to slow down the advance of these diseases.Apoptosis is an important physiological process during development of CNS maintaining cellular homeostasis. Cerebellum is one of the cerebral regions in which this phenomenon is especially dramatic. During development of cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs) practically a half are removed during apoptotic process. This phenomenon is able to mimic in vitro from pure culture of these neurons. Primary cultures of CGNs are an extensively used model to study apoptosis, inducing it by potassium deprivation. In this process is able to produce an increase of intracellular concentrations of ceramide, implied in the process of cell death.Ceramide is a signalling molecule implied in different cellular processes like proliferation, senescence, differentiation and control of cellular cycle. During the last years authors suggest ceramide with an important role like a regulator of apoptotic death. One of our objectives was, by means of using this model; characterize apoptotic death process by ceramide.During the last years diverse accumulating evidences have suggested that estrogens exposition reduce risk and delay the onset and development of neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer and Parkinson, the same way as promote recovery from neurological shocks like cerebral ischemia. These hormones are able to carry out these functions implying different processes as cellular survival, regenerative responses, axonal growth, synaptic signal potentiation and neurogenesis.Results of ours investigation shows that: (1) ceramide induce apoptosis in CGNs activating as caspase-9 as caspase-2; two death pathways beforehand parallels and that in this apoptotic death, (2) inhibition of Akt and activation of MAPKs are implicated. (3) Estradiol (E2) does not protect from apoptosis in CGNs and the absence of Akt activation can be key in this absence of neuroprotection. (4) The absence of neuroprotection could be due to estrogen receptor ER-? does not interact with IGF-IR. (5) ER-? is located in plasmatic membrane of the CGNs and mediates the ERK1/2 activation by E2. Activation of classic pathway MAPKs by E2 implies a different action mechanism to E2 in CGNs model. (6) E2 exerts a neuroprotective effect in CGNs due to proprieties as an antioxidant molecule. (7) Activation of Src/Ras/ERK/CREB pathway would be related with phenomena of synaptic plasticity and the maintenance of connexions between neurons of CGNs although it would not be enough to protect CGNs of apoptotic death.In spite of E2 does not protect CGNs from apoptotic death, it could have great relevance the fact of known how E2 switch on mechanisms that triggers phenomena of dendrite maintenance and potential decrease of vulnerability of neurons in front of adverse stimuli, making possible to influence in the future on neurodegenerative disease models as Alzheimer or ischemic processes, where the maintenance of dendrite connexions existing and generating news, moreover of maintenance of structure can be key processes.

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El presente estudio tuvo como objetivo determinar el nivel sérico de la hormona estradiol en alpacas hembras adultas al momento del primer servicio postparto y su influencia sobre la tasa de concepción. Con esta finalidad, se utilizaron 85 alpacas hembras adultas, vacías y sin cría, las cuales fueron servidas por machos enteros de fertilidad comprobada, previa evaluación de conducta de receptividad frente al macho. Se tomaron muestras de sangre por punción de la vena yugular, luego fueron centrifugadas a 3000 rpm por 10 minutos y los sueros obtenidos fueron mantenidos en congelación a –20 ºC hasta su análisis. Posteriormente, para efecto de determinar la tasa de concepción se utilizó la técnica de ecografía a los 25-27 días postcopula, mediante un ecógrafo ALOKA SSD5OO y un transductor de 7.5MHz para detectar animales gestantes en base a la observación de una estructura anecoica en el útero correspondiente a la vesícula embrionaria y la del embrión en sí. La determinación de estradiol fue realizada mediante la técnica de radioinmunoensayo (RIA) para humanos. La media general de la concentración de estradiol fue de 0.78 ± 0.39 pg/ml. Los valores encontrados fueron divididos en dos grupos, según el nivel de estradiol: Grupo A (nivel basal de estradiol menor 0.5 pg/ml) y Grupo B (Nivel de estradiol > 0,5 pg/ml). Los resultados obtenidos permiten evidenciar niveles bajos de estradiol en alpacas. La concentración de estradiol no fue afectada por la categorización de los animales con preñadas o vacías. Las hembras preñadas presentaron una media más alta de nivel de estradiol (0,85 ± 0.59 pg/ml) que las hembras vacias (0,68 ± 0.47 pg/ml), pero esta diferencia no fue estadísticamente significativa (p > 0.05). / The objective of this study was to determine the serum oestradiol level in female adult alpacas during the first mating post-partum and its influence on the conception rate. For this purpose 85 non-pregnant and non-lactating female adult alpacas were used. Animals were mated with male adults and of proved fertility. Previously to mating, females were also evaluated by sexual receptivity to the male. Blood samples were taken by jugular venipunction to obtain serum. The samples were centrifuged by 10 minutes at 3000 rpm and serum was maintained in freezing to -20ºC, until their analysis. Subsequently, we did ultrasound evaluations to establish the conception rate on days 25-27 after mating. Pregnancy rate was determined by ultrasonography with a ALOKA SSD500 and probe of 7.5 MHz and defined as the presence of an embryonic vesicle and embryo in itself. The oestradiol determination was carried out by means of the radioimmunoassay technique (RIA) for human. The mean of oestradiol concentration was 0.78 ± 0.39 pg/ml. The values were divided in two groups according to its oestradiol level: group A (basal oestradiol level less than 0.5 pg/ml) and group B (oestradiol level > 0,5 pg/ml). The obtained results shown that majority of samples had very low, basal or undetectable concentration of oestradiol in alpacas. Oestradiol level was not affected by the categorization in pregnant and non-pregnant animals. The females pregnant presented values of oestradiol concentration (0,85 ± 0.59 pg/ml) higher than females non-pregnant (0,68 ± 0.47 pg/ml), but this difference was not statistically significant (p > 0.05).