Dans le cadre du développement des voitures électriques (VE), la solution de chauffage de l’habitacle par pompe à chaleur (PAC) s’impose graduellement en raison des plus grandes efficacités de ces dernières par rapport aux résistances électriques classiques. Cependant, dans certaines conditions, du givre se forme sur l’évapo-condenseur entraînant une dégradation marquée des performances du système. L’enjeu général de ce travail est donc de développer une PAC pour VE efficace en conditions de givrage afin d’améliorer l'autonomie en hiver. Pour ce faire, un évapo-condenseur résistant au givrage est nécessaire. Afin d’améliorer le design de l’échangeur, un modèle dynamique et pseudo 3D d’échangeur à microcanaux, typique de l’automobile, en conditions de givrage a été développé. Un sous-modèle de croissance de givre à la fois simple et précis a été établi en étudiant les différentes hypothèses de modélisation trouvées dans la littérature. Ensuite, au niveau échangeur de chaleur, la clé réside dans la bonne prédiction des pertes de charge aérauliques. Ainsi, une nouvelle approche a été de considérer les épaisseurs maximales locales de givre et une corrélation intégrant l’impact du givre afin de bien prédire les pertes de charge, la chute du débit d’air, et donc la chute de la puissance thermique de l’échangeur. Le modèle complet d’échangeur de chaleur couplé à un ventilateur a été validé expérimentalement. À partir d’une étude numérique basée sur le modèle, deux concepts innovants ont été établis : l’un avec ailettes ondulées débordantes et l’autre avec passes de réfrigérant croisées. Deux prototypes ont été fabriqués, à partir de l’évapo-condenseur de la Renault Zoé, puis testés. Le meilleur des deux échangeurs, celui à ailettes débordantes, a été monté sur véhicule et comparé à l’échangeur de la Zoé. Le prototype a permis d’allonger d’environ 2.5 fois la période de fonctionnement du système. Finalement, un modèle de PAC avec givrage a été réalisé et intégré dans un modèle complet de VE. Pour un VE avec une autonomie d’environ 140 km sans chauffage, il s’avère que le givrage de la PAC dégrade l’autonomie d’environ 15% pour un trajet à 0°C et 90% d'humidité. Grâce à l’utilisation du prototype à ailettes ondulées débordantes, cette perte d’autonomie est de 3% seulement. / In the electric vehicle (EV) development context, the choice of heat pumps (HP) for cabin heating is becoming more popular due to their high efficiency compared to electric heaters. However, under some operating conditions, frost forms on the HP evapo-condenser causing a dramatic drop in the system performances until the system cannot operate. Hence, this work aims at developing a HP for EV which remains efficient under frosting conditions ultimately, to improve the EV range in the winter. This requires the design of a frost-resistant heat exchanger (HX). First, to improve the HX design, a dynamic and pseudo-3D model under frosting conditions of a typical HX for cars has been developed. A simple and accurate frost growth sub-model has been established by studying the various modeling assumptions found in the literature. Then, at the HX level, the key point has been to predict the air pressure losses, via the consideration of the maximum local frost thicknesses and the development of a correlation considering frost, in order to predict the drop of airflow and therefore the drop of the HX cooling capacity. Then, the model of the HX coupled with the fan has been validated experimentally. Using the model, a numerical study has been conducted and two innovative concepts have been established: one with wavy upstream extending fins and the other with crossed passes of refrigerant. Two prototypes were fabricated, using a reference HX taken from the Renault Zoé, and then tested. The best of the two HX, the one with upstream extending fins, was mounted on a VE and compared to the reference case. The prototype allowed extending the system operation by 2.5 times approximately. Finally, a HP model under frosting conditions was built and integrated into a EV model. It appeared that, for an EV with a range of approximately 140 km without heating, the HP frosting degrades the autonomy by about 15% at 0°C and 90% humidity, which was reduced to 3% via the use of the innovative HX prototype with wavy upstream extending fins.

Les boucles diphasiques à pompage capillaire sont des systèmes performants de transfert thermique qui peuvent transporter, de manière passive, de très importantes quantités de chaleur sur de grandes distances : utilisant les phénomènes qui apparaissent lors de la vaporisation d'un liquide dans un corps poreux (la mèche) contenu dans l'évaporateur, ces dispositifs offrent l'avantage de ne pas utiliser d'organe mécanique de puissance pour mettre lefluide frigorigène en mouvement. Vu les performances dont ces systèmes ont fait preuve dans le domaine spatial, leur utilisation dans le domaine gravitaire est aujourd'hui sérieusement étudiée, en particulier dans le domaine ferroviaire. Le travail de cette thèse porte sur la description du comportement thermodynamique instationnaire global d'une boucle diphasique à pompage capillaire, utilisée par Alstom Transport pour refroidir ses composants d'électronique de puissance. La première partie de ce travail consiste en la modélisation du transfert de masse et de chaleur dans la mèche contenu dans l'évaporateur, qui est le composant clé de la boucle. Un modèle mathématique instationnaire 2D a été développé pour décrire l'écoulement diphasique avec changement de phase dans le milieu poreux. Les résultats numériques de ce modèle montrent la formation d'une poche de vapeur au sein de la mèche poreuse. Une étude approfondie est élaborée pour décrire la dynamique de la croissance de cette poche en fonction de plusieurs paramètres (géométrie, sous-refroidissement, température de saturation, porosité). La deuxième partie de ce travail consiste à coupler le modèle de l'évaporateur au reste de la boucle afin d'obtenir un modèle thermodynamique global avec une interface liquide/vapeur mobile dans la mèche poreuse. Ce modèle est validé en régime transitoire par une confrontation de ses résultats aux mesures obtenues lors d'une précédente campagne expérimentale. Le comportement de la boucle au cours de la phase de démarrage est ensuite étudié. Finalement, la réponse transitoire de la boucle globale est analysée, en portant un intérêt particulier au comportement de l'évaporateur soumis à un créneau de puissance appliqué, à la variation de la température de consigne du réservoir de contrôle et à la variation de la température de la source froide en contact avec le condenseur. / Capillary pumped loop is a two phase device that uses the phase change phenomena occurred in the porous wick to transport large heat loads over long distances (several meters) without the need of any mechanical pump. CPLs have been developed and successfully employed for the thermal control of satellites. Thanks to their heat transport capacity, their use is now seriously considered in the gravity field especially for cooling electronic devices of a railroad traction chain. The work of this thesis focuses on the description of the unsteady thermodynamic behavior of a capillary pumped loop used by Alstom Transport to cool its power electronics components. The first part of the thesis consists to study the key component of CPL: the capillary evaporator. A 2D unsteady mathematical model has been developed to describe the heat and mass transfer inside the porous wick of the CPL evaporator. The numerical results of this model show the formation of a vapor pocket inside the porous wick. The influences of evaporator geometry, liquid subcooling, saturation temperature and wick porosity on the dynamic growth of the vapor pocket are discussed in detail. The second part of this work consists of coupling the CPL evaporator model with other CPL components in order to obtain a global capillary pumped poop model with a mobile liquid/vapor interface in the porous wick. The proposed model is validated by comparing numerical simulations with experimental results obtained in a previous works realized at Alstom Transport. The CPL startup is then studied. Finally, the influences of the applied power, reservoir temperature and heat sink temperature on the dynamic response of the overall loop are analyzed, with a particular interest to the evaporator behavior.

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of preheat treatments on fouling by fresh whole milk (FWM), recombined whole milk (RCB) and reconstituted whole milk (Recon) in the high-temperature heater of indirect UHT plants. Various preheat treatments prior to evaporation during milk powder manufacture were applied to skim milk powder (SMP, 75 °C 2 s, 85 °C, 155 s and 95 °C, 155 s) and whole milk powder (WMP, 95 °C, 33 s). These preheat treatments were so-called “evaporator preheat treatments”. Skim milk powder (SMP) and whole milk powder (WMP) were derived from the same original batch of pasteurised FWM to remove the effects of the variation in milk composition between different milk batches. These SMPs were recombined with anhydrous milk fat and water to prepare RCB, and WMPs were reconstituted with water to prepare Recon. Then, (homogenized) FWM, RCB and Recon were subjected to various preheat treatments (75 °C, 11 s, 85 °C, 147 s and 95 °C, 147 s) prior to UHT processing. These preheat treatments were so-called “UHT preheat treatments”. Temperature difference (hot water inlet temperature – milk outlet temperature) was taken as a measure of the extent of fouling in the high-temperature heater. The slope of the linear regression of temperature difference versus time (for two hours of UHT processing) was taken as fouling rate (°C/h). Increasing both evaporator and UHT preheat treatments resulted in increasing fouling rate and total deposit weight for all three whole milk types for several milk batches. In the case of FWM, there was no reduction in fouling rate with increasing UHT preheat treatment whether FWM was homogenized then preheated, preheated then homogenized or not homogenized at all. These findings, which are wholly consistent and well replicated, are in apparent conflict with the results of most previous comparable studies. Possible reasons for this are explained. Further investigations of the effects of homogenization relating to the role of whey protein on the surface of the fat globules showed that whey protein associated with the membrane covering the surface of fat globules for homogenized then preheated FWM, RCB and Recon and that association increased with increasing heating process stage. The increasing association of whey protein with the milk fat globules membrane with increasing severity of heating process stage became faster when preheat treatment was more severe: the association of whey protein plateaued on intermediate temperature heating when the milks were preheated at 75°C, 11 s and on preheating when the milks were preheated at 95°C, 147 s. In the case of FWM, the thickness of the membrane covering the surface of fat globules for homogenized then preheated FWM, which increased with the severity of heating process stage, was greater than the thickness of the membrane in preheated then homogenized FWM. Preheating then homogenization resulted in the greater interfacial spreading of small molecules on the surface of fat globules, i.e. whey protein or small molecules from the disintegration of casein micelles during preheating. Possible basic mechanisms for UHT fouling in the high-temperature heater include: the reduction in the solubility of calcium phosphate and the deposition of protein as fat-bound protein and non-fat-bound protein. When non-fat-bound protein in milk plasma deposited, it could be a carrier for the deposition of mineral, such as, the precipitate of calcium phosphate in the casein micelles or the deposition of complexes between whey protein and casein micelles.

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of preheat treatments on fouling by fresh whole milk (FWM), recombined whole milk (RCB) and reconstituted whole milk (Recon) in the high-temperature heater of indirect UHT plants. Various preheat treatments prior to evaporation during milk powder manufacture were applied to skim milk powder (SMP, 75 °C 2 s, 85 °C, 155 s and 95 °C, 155 s) and whole milk powder (WMP, 95 °C, 33 s). These preheat treatments were so-called “evaporator preheat treatments”. Skim milk powder (SMP) and whole milk powder (WMP) were derived from the same original batch of pasteurised FWM to remove the effects of the variation in milk composition between different milk batches. These SMPs were recombined with anhydrous milk fat and water to prepare RCB, and WMPs were reconstituted with water to prepare Recon. Then, (homogenized) FWM, RCB and Recon were subjected to various preheat treatments (75 °C, 11 s, 85 °C, 147 s and 95 °C, 147 s) prior to UHT processing. These preheat treatments were so-called “UHT preheat treatments”. Temperature difference (hot water inlet temperature – milk outlet temperature) was taken as a measure of the extent of fouling in the high-temperature heater. The slope of the linear regression of temperature difference versus time (for two hours of UHT processing) was taken as fouling rate (°C/h). Increasing both evaporator and UHT preheat treatments resulted in increasing fouling rate and total deposit weight for all three whole milk types for several milk batches. In the case of FWM, there was no reduction in fouling rate with increasing UHT preheat treatment whether FWM was homogenized then preheated, preheated then homogenized or not homogenized at all. These findings, which are wholly consistent and well replicated, are in apparent conflict with the results of most previous comparable studies. Possible reasons for this are explained. Further investigations of the effects of homogenization relating to the role of whey protein on the surface of the fat globules showed that whey protein associated with the membrane covering the surface of fat globules for homogenized then preheated FWM, RCB and Recon and that association increased with increasing heating process stage. The increasing association of whey protein with the milk fat globules membrane with increasing severity of heating process stage became faster when preheat treatment was more severe: the association of whey protein plateaued on intermediate temperature heating when the milks were preheated at 75°C, 11 s and on preheating when the milks were preheated at 95°C, 147 s. In the case of FWM, the thickness of the membrane covering the surface of fat globules for homogenized then preheated FWM, which increased with the severity of heating process stage, was greater than the thickness of the membrane in preheated then homogenized FWM. Preheating then homogenization resulted in the greater interfacial spreading of small molecules on the surface of fat globules, i.e. whey protein or small molecules from the disintegration of casein micelles during preheating. Possible basic mechanisms for UHT fouling in the high-temperature heater include: the reduction in the solubility of calcium phosphate and the deposition of protein as fat-bound protein and non-fat-bound protein. When non-fat-bound protein in milk plasma deposited, it could be a carrier for the deposition of mineral, such as, the precipitate of calcium phosphate in the casein micelles or the deposition of complexes between whey protein and casein micelles.

Capillary pumped loop (CPL) and loop heat pipe (LHP), are two-phase heat transport devices which rely on surface tension induced by a fine pore wick to drive a working fluid in a loop. These are based on a working principle similar to that of heat pipes -closed evaporation and condensation cycle being maintained by capillary pumping. CPLs and LHPs are gaining importance as a part of the thermal control system of modern high power spacecraft, electronic thermal management, cryogenics, etc. A mathematical model to simulate the thermo-hydraulic performance of CPLs and LHPs is developed to aid in the design of such a spacecraft thermal control system. In this study a unified mathematical model to estimate thermal and hydraulic performance of a CPL and an LHP -with a two-phase or a hard-filled reservoir is presented. The steady state model is based on conservation of energy and mass in the system. Heat exchanges between the loop and the surroundings and pressure drops in the loop are calculated. The constant conductance regime in a CPL or an LHP occurs when the reservoir is hard-filled. It also occurs in an LHP if the condenser is fully utilised. The heat leak across the wick becomes significant in a hard-filled LHP since the core is no longer saturated and hence the mass flow rate must be calculated using an energy balance on the outer surface of the wick. Theoretical studies indicate that the core of a hard-filled CPL and LHP is always sub-cooled. Hard-filled LHPs (with a bayonet) cannot be operated under all conditions. If the heat exchange between the compensation chamber (of an LHP with bayonet) and the ambient is small then such an LHP will not deprime if the hard-filling occurs before the condenser opens. Deprime due to hard-filling is not expected if it occurs after the condenser opens. A laboratory model is built to demonstrate the operation of these two devices and to correlate the theoretical predictions with the experimental observations. The CPL/LHP laboratory model is fabricated and designed so that different evaporator and reservoir designs can be integrated into the test-rig and tested with different working fluids. Experiments are conducted on a three-port CPL with a tubular axially grooved (TAG) evaporator. This CPL is operated with three different fluids -namely -Ammonia, Acetone and R134a. The CPL is operated for heat loads in the range of 75W to 400W with sink temperatures of -10◦C and 0◦C. The influence of reservoir temperature (35◦C and 43◦C) is also studied. The TAG evaporator is modified to operate in an LHP mode with R134a as the working fluid with heat loads in the range of 75W to 150W. This LHP does not exhibit typical “√” shaped operating characteristic due to large liquid inventory in the compensation chamber (CC). The R134a based LHP results suggest that large liquid inventory (in the CC) and absence of secondary wick significantly influence the thermal coupling between the core and the compensation chamber. Experiments are also conducted with a flat plate (FP) evaporator, in LHP operating mode, with Ammonia as the working fluid. This LHP can transport heat loads from 25W to 300W with a sink temperature at -15◦C. The experimental results indicate that ammonia is the best working fluid (moderate temperature regime) among all the working fluids tested, and that evaporation heat transfer coefficients in sintered Ni-wick are better. The correlation of the predicted temperatures on the transport lines and the saturation temperature (in LHPs) with the observations is good. Some of the salient conclusions from these experiments are that mass of charge can significantly influence the operating characteristics of a TAG LHP, even though the fluid in the CC is in two-phase condition. Theoretical predictions can be significantly affected when thermal and hydraulic development lengths in the condenser are comparable with the length of the sub-cooling section.

This thesis is based on eight articles all related to the characteristics of the cooling system and plate evaporator of a household refrigerator. Through these articles, knowledge is provided that can be used to increase the operational efficiency in household refrigeration. Papers A, B and C focus on heat transfer and pressure drop in a commonly used free convection evaporator – the plate evaporator. Applicable correlations are suggested on how to estimate the air side heat transfer, the refrigerant side pressure drop and the refrigerant side heat transfer. Papers D, E and F hold a unique experimental study of the refrigerant charge distribution in the cooling system at transient and steady state conditions. From this cyclic losses are identified and estimated and ways to overcome them are suggested. In paper G the topic “charging and throttling” is investigated in an unparalleled experimental study based on more than 600 data points at different quantities of charge and expansions device capacities. It results in recommendations on how to optimize the capillary tube length and the quantity of refrigerant charge. Finally, Paper H holds a thermographic study of the overall cooling system operating at transient conditions. Overall, a potential to lower the energy use by as much as 25 % was identified in the refrigerator studied. About 10 % was found on the evaporator’s air side. 1-2 % was identified as losses related to the edge effect of the evaporator plate. About 8 % was estimated to be cyclic losses. About 5 % was found in cycle length optimization.  It is believed that most of these findings are of general interest for the whole field of household refrigeration even though the results come from one type of refrigerator. Suggestions of simple means to reduce the losses without increasing the unit price are provided within the thesis / <p>QC 20120411</p>

Concern with global climate change has led to the interest in the use of natural refrigerants, such as carbon dioxide, as replacements in heat pump systems. When operating in a transcritical cycle, carbon dioxide heat pumps are well suited for use in high temperature water heating heat pumps. In this work, four systems are analyzed: with and without the use of a suction line heat exchanger, and two water heating schemes. These two schemes involve the heating of water to its desired temperature at a low water flow rate in a single pass through the heat pump, and the heating of water at a high water flow rate, but requiring multiple passes. The performance and resulting heat exchanger size of these four systems is analyzed through the development of an overall system model. This system model uses component-level models that were developed based upon heat exchanger geometry and subsequently validated through experimental testing on a test facility developed for this purpose.

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of preheat treatments on fouling by fresh whole milk (FWM), recombined whole milk (RCB) and reconstituted whole milk (Recon) in the high-temperature heater of indirect UHT plants. Various preheat treatments prior to evaporation during milk powder manufacture were applied to skim milk powder (SMP, 75 °C 2 s, 85 °C, 155 s and 95 °C, 155 s) and whole milk powder (WMP, 95 °C, 33 s). These preheat treatments were so-called “evaporator preheat treatments”. Skim milk powder (SMP) and whole milk powder (WMP) were derived from the same original batch of pasteurised FWM to remove the effects of the variation in milk composition between different milk batches. These SMPs were recombined with anhydrous milk fat and water to prepare RCB, and WMPs were reconstituted with water to prepare Recon. Then, (homogenized) FWM, RCB and Recon were subjected to various preheat treatments (75 °C, 11 s, 85 °C, 147 s and 95 °C, 147 s) prior to UHT processing. These preheat treatments were so-called “UHT preheat treatments”. Temperature difference (hot water inlet temperature – milk outlet temperature) was taken as a measure of the extent of fouling in the high-temperature heater. The slope of the linear regression of temperature difference versus time (for two hours of UHT processing) was taken as fouling rate (°C/h). Increasing both evaporator and UHT preheat treatments resulted in increasing fouling rate and total deposit weight for all three whole milk types for several milk batches. In the case of FWM, there was no reduction in fouling rate with increasing UHT preheat treatment whether FWM was homogenized then preheated, preheated then homogenized or not homogenized at all. These findings, which are wholly consistent and well replicated, are in apparent conflict with the results of most previous comparable studies. Possible reasons for this are explained. Further investigations of the effects of homogenization relating to the role of whey protein on the surface of the fat globules showed that whey protein associated with the membrane covering the surface of fat globules for homogenized then preheated FWM, RCB and Recon and that association increased with increasing heating process stage. The increasing association of whey protein with the milk fat globules membrane with increasing severity of heating process stage became faster when preheat treatment was more severe: the association of whey protein plateaued on intermediate temperature heating when the milks were preheated at 75°C, 11 s and on preheating when the milks were preheated at 95°C, 147 s. In the case of FWM, the thickness of the membrane covering the surface of fat globules for homogenized then preheated FWM, which increased with the severity of heating process stage, was greater than the thickness of the membrane in preheated then homogenized FWM. Preheating then homogenization resulted in the greater interfacial spreading of small molecules on the surface of fat globules, i.e. whey protein or small molecules from the disintegration of casein micelles during preheating. Possible basic mechanisms for UHT fouling in the high-temperature heater include: the reduction in the solubility of calcium phosphate and the deposition of protein as fat-bound protein and non-fat-bound protein. When non-fat-bound protein in milk plasma deposited, it could be a carrier for the deposition of mineral, such as, the precipitate of calcium phosphate in the casein micelles or the deposition of complexes between whey protein and casein micelles.

This master's thesis deals with the design of stoker-fired boiler for combustion of biomass. The main points of work are stoichiometry calculation of combustion, determining the dew point of flue gas, calculation of losses, which ones serves for determination of boiler efficiency, dimension design and detail calculation of thermosetting surfaces. In the last chapter is numbered total balance and real thermal efficiency of boiler.

This thesis is focused on the design of steam boiler like a supplement for cogeneration unit of biogas plant. The main idea is to use a waste heat from the exhaust gasses to produce a technological steam of required parameters. The thesis contains of a calculation an amount of the heat in exhaust gasses and a heat exchange surface. An Aerodynamic loss and a wall thickness of the boilers are verified by strength calculation in the next parts of this thesis. At the end of this thesis are made projection drawings and diagram, which are made of the calculations.