Nécessité pressante, l’urgence appelle une réponse rapide. Le Droit, règle sociale, ne peut l’ignorer. L’urgence pourtant dérange. Imposant une réaction immédiate, elle demande au système juridique souplesse et flexibilité. Elle justifie des exceptions au droit ordinaire. Violation de la règle de droit organisée par la Loi elle-même, n’y a-t-il pas une contradiction interne du système juridique nuisant à sa cohérence ? Indéfinie, la notion d’urgence se présente comme une lacune intra legem. Laissée entre les mains de l’interprète, la règle paraît imprécise et imprévisible. La sécurité juridique n’est-elle pas remise en cause ? Si l’urgence semble prima facie subversive, elle invite, en réalité, l’observateur à modifier sa posture. Elle le conduit à quitter le confort d’une logique formelle pour adopter une rationalité réaliste, moins respectueuse de la lettre des textes mais plus conforme à leur esprit. Loin d’être un élément perturbateur, l’urgence participe à la réalisation du Droit. / As a reflexion of a pressing necessity, emergency calls for a rapid response. Law as the social rule cannot ignore this. Yet, emergency troubles. While imposing an immediate reaction, it demands from the legal system suppleness and flexibility. It justifies exceptions to the ordinary law. Given that the violation of the rule of law is organised by Law itself, isn’t there an internal contradiction within the legal system undermining its coherence ? Undefined, the notion of emergency comes across as a loophole intra legem. Left in the hands of the interpreter, the rule appears as imprecise and unpredictable. Hence, isn’t the imperative of the legal certainty called into question ? If emergency seems prima facie subversive it invites, in realty, the observer to modify its posture. It leads to abandon the comfort of a formal logics to adopt a realistic rationality, which is less respectful of the letter of the texts but is more consistent with their spirit. Far from being a disruptive element, emergency contributes to the realisation of Law.

La présente recherche s’intéresse à la syntaxe des constructions exceptives (CE) et sa correspondance avec la sémantique au sein de deux langues : le français et l’arabe. À partir d’un corpus d’exemples attestés, nous proposons pour le français une classification des CE en deux classes majeures à comportements syntaxiques distincts : les CE-paradigmatiques qui s’apparentent, du point de vue syntaxique, à la coordination et les CE-hypotactiques qui relèvent au contraire de la subordination. Nous situerons notre analyse des marqueurs sauf, excepté, hormis, etc. dans le cadre des listes/entassements paradigmatiques, constructions dans lesquelles deux éléments occupent la même position syntaxique et dont le cas le plus connu est la coordination. Cette analyse s’éloigne de celle généralement associée à ces marqueurs dans les grammaires et les dictionnaires français qui les traitent comme des prépositions. Pour l’arabe, nous proposons une répartition tripartite des CE qui prend en considération les spécificités de l’arabe par rapport au français. En plus des CE-paradigmatiques et des CE-hypotactiques, nous identifions, en arabe, une troisième classe, celle des CE-paratactiques, qui sont des constructions à tête verbale qui relèvent de la parataxe, procédé particulièrement développé en arabe. Nos analyses nous amènent à considérer les marqueurs ʾillā, ġayr et siwā en arabe comme des conjonctions de coordination. Ces items, comme leurs homologues français, mettent en relation deux éléments X et Y où X à droite du marqueur et Y à gauche forment des listes/entassements paradigmatiques au sens où ils partagent la même fonction syntaxique dans l’énoncé. Nous analysons les unités ʿadā (mā-ʿadā), ẖalā (mā-ẖalā), ḥāšā (mā-ḥāšā) comme des verbes. Ces verbes introduisent une proposition qui entretient une relation de parataxe avec la proposition précédente. Nous considérons, enfin, les unités bistiṯnāʾi et biẖilāfi comme des locutions prépositives introduisant une séquence qui entretient une relation de subordination avec la proposition principale. / This research takes an interest the syntax of exceptive constructions (ECs) and its correspondence with semantic within two languages: French and Arabic. Based on a corpus of authentic examples, we suggest a classification of ECs into two major categories with dissimilar syntactic behaviors: the paradigmatic-ECs, which are syntactically related to coordination and the hypotactic-ECs, which are contrarily related to subordination. We will focus our analysis on the markers sauf, excepté, hormis, etc. and analyze them as particular case of paradigmatic lists/piles, in which two segments of the utterance pile up on the same syntactic position and whose most famous case is coordination. This analysis is different from the one generally associated with these markers in French grammars and dictionaries which consider them as prepositions. For Arabic, we propose a tripartite classification of ECs that considers the specificities of Arabic relative to French. In addition to the paradigmatic-ECs and the hypotactic-ECs, we identify, in Arabic, a third class, the paratactic-ECs, which are constructions with a verbal head that belong to the parataxis, a process particularly developed in Arabic. Our analyzes lead us to consider the markers ʾillā, ġayr and siwā in Arabic as coordinating conjunctions. These items, like their French counterparts, relate two elements where X on the right of the marker and Y on the left form paradigmatic lists/piles, in the sense that they fulfill the same syntactic function in the utterance. We analyze the lexical items ʿadā (mā-ʿadā), ẖalā (mā-ẖalā), ḥāšā (mā-ḥāšā) as verbs. These verbs introduce a clause that maintains a parataxic relation with the preceding clause. Finally, we consider the items bistiṯnā'i and biẖilāfi as prepositive phrases introducing a sequence that maintains a subordinate relationship with the main clause.

Ce mémoire cherche à faire ressortir la teneur philosophique de la critique kierkegaardienne de Hegel en s’inscrivant dans la lignée des travaux de Thulstrup et de Stewart. Comme plusieurs grands penseurs, Kierkegaard est apparu bien après sa mort sur la scène de l’histoire de la philosophie occidentale et ses œuvres les plus lues sont surtout celles concertant Hegel, de sorte que son anti-hégélianisme est vite devenu une affaire bien connue. En 1967, Thulstrup produit le premier travail consacré à l’ensemble de la critique kierkegaardienne de Hegel, travail dont les résultats confortent l’idée selon laquelle Kierkegaard n’aurait rien à voir avec Hegel. Mais il suscitera aussi, en 2003, la réaction de Stewart, qui trouve avant tout, derrière les allusions kierkegaardiennes à Hegel, une critique de ses contemporains hégéliens danois. Or, si Stewart éclaire brillamment l’historicité kierkegaardienne, il laisse de côté sa teneur philosophique. Notre mémoire tâchera donc de présenter une conception de l’œuvre kierkegaardienne comme exception, à partir de laquelle nous serons à même de comprendre allégoriquement son rapport à Hegel comme confirmation de la règle. Pour ce faire, nous produirons une exposition rassemblant thématiquement les allusions kierkegaardiennes à Hegel, ce qui permettra de constater chez Kierkegaard une variation sur le plan éthique à partir de 1843, problème qui ne peut s’expliquer que par une concrétisation de l’exception vers une forme particulière du religieux. / Following the works of Thulstrup and Stewart, this thesis seeks to highlight the philosophical content of the Kierkegaard’s critics of Hegel. Like many great thinkers, Kierkegaard appeared long after his death on the stage of history of Western philosophy and since it is mainly his works where Hegel is mentioned that are read, its anti-Hegelianism soon became a well-known case. In 1967, Thulstrup produced the first work devoted to Kierkegaard's entire critique of Hegel, whose results support the idea that Kierkegaard has nothing to do with Hegel. But in 2003, it will also create Stewart's response, which finds primarily, behind the allusions from Kierkegaard to Hegel, a critique of his contemporaries Danish Hegelians. But if Stewart brilliantly illuminates the historicity of Kierkegaard, he leaves aside its philosophical content. Our dissertation will therefore try to present a conception of the work or Kierkegaard as exception, from which we will be able to understand his relation to Hegel allegorically as confirmation of the rule. To do this, we will produce a thematic exposition of the allusions to Hegel by Kierkegaard, which will permit to reveal a change in Kierkegaard’s conception of the ethical from 1843, a problem that can only be explained by a concretisation of the exception by the way of realizing of a particular form of religion.

A sociedade está cada vez mais dependente de sistemas embarcados, sendo que na grande maioria das vezes eles operam de maneira invisível aos seus usuários. Essa dependência torna esses usuários vulneráveis a riscos, devido às falhas que podem ocorrer. Essas falhas podem provocar perdas de vidas ou sérios danos materiais e financeiros. Devido a estes fatos, a qualidade destes produtos torna-se um ponto essencial para se ter um sistema estável, livre de erros e com todas as suas funcionalidades sendo executadas. De encontro a isso, a etapa de teste apresenta-se como indispensável e de relevada importância para a obtenção de um produto com uma boa qualidade. Devido ao alto custo de produção e energia gasto com testes, surge a necessidade de novos estudos, sobre diversificados métodos, para se testar um sistema embarcado. Neste contexto, este trabalho tem como objetivo apresentar os estudos iniciais do teste de um Sistema Operacional Embarcado (SOE), através de um estudo de caso focado na rotina de tratamento de exceção do eCos (Embedded Configurable Operating System), pois ela apresenta uma forte interação entre software e hardware, sendo que esta interação é um dos principais desafios encontrados no teste de um software embarcado. Com isso, este trabalho pretende dar o passo inicial para pesquisas relacionadas aos testes de um Sistema Operacional Embarcado. Após a análise dos experimentos, pôde-se notar que a principal característica do Sistema Operacional Embarcado eCos, a configurabilidade, é um ponto de dificuldade extra para a realização dos testes, pois exige um estudo detalhado do código do SOE, o qual é totalmente genérico, antes do planejamento dos testes, podendo ser gasto muito tempo nessa atividade. Outro ponto é que o teste torna-se totalmente dependente do hardware. Entretanto, os resultados experimentais apresentados para o estudo de caso do presente trabalho foram satisfatórios. / Society is increasingly dependent on embedded systems, which in most cases operate in an invisible manner to its users. This dependence makes the user vulnerable to risks due to failures that may occur. These failures can cause loss of lives or serious property and financial damage. Because of these facts, the quality of these products becomes a key point to have a stable system, free of errors and with all the features running. This testing is of essential importance to obtain a product with good quality. Due to the high cost of production and energy spent on tests, there is a need for further studies on different methods, to test an embedded system. In this context, this work aims at presenting the initial studies as the testing of the Embedded Operating System. The case study was focused on the exception handling routine of the eCos (Embedded Configurable Operating System), because it has a strong interaction between software and hardware, and this interaction is one of the main challenges encountered in testing embedded software. Therefore, this work aims at taking the first steps towards research related to testing an Embedded Operating System. After analyzing the experiments, it was noted that the main feature of the Embedded Operating System, eCos, the configurability, is an extra point of difficulty for the tests. It requires a detailed study of the code eCos, which is completely general, before the planning of tests, and could be spent much time in this activity. Another point is that the test becomes totally dependent on hardware. However, the experimental results presented for the case study of this study showed satisfactory.

A sociedade está cada vez mais dependente de sistemas embarcados, sendo que na grande maioria das vezes eles operam de maneira invisível aos seus usuários. Essa dependência torna esses usuários vulneráveis a riscos, devido às falhas que podem ocorrer. Essas falhas podem provocar perdas de vidas ou sérios danos materiais e financeiros. Devido a estes fatos, a qualidade destes produtos torna-se um ponto essencial para se ter um sistema estável, livre de erros e com todas as suas funcionalidades sendo executadas. De encontro a isso, a etapa de teste apresenta-se como indispensável e de relevada importância para a obtenção de um produto com uma boa qualidade. Devido ao alto custo de produção e energia gasto com testes, surge a necessidade de novos estudos, sobre diversificados métodos, para se testar um sistema embarcado. Neste contexto, este trabalho tem como objetivo apresentar os estudos iniciais do teste de um Sistema Operacional Embarcado (SOE), através de um estudo de caso focado na rotina de tratamento de exceção do eCos (Embedded Configurable Operating System), pois ela apresenta uma forte interação entre software e hardware, sendo que esta interação é um dos principais desafios encontrados no teste de um software embarcado. Com isso, este trabalho pretende dar o passo inicial para pesquisas relacionadas aos testes de um Sistema Operacional Embarcado. Após a análise dos experimentos, pôde-se notar que a principal característica do Sistema Operacional Embarcado eCos, a configurabilidade, é um ponto de dificuldade extra para a realização dos testes, pois exige um estudo detalhado do código do SOE, o qual é totalmente genérico, antes do planejamento dos testes, podendo ser gasto muito tempo nessa atividade. Outro ponto é que o teste torna-se totalmente dependente do hardware. Entretanto, os resultados experimentais apresentados para o estudo de caso do presente trabalho foram satisfatórios. / Society is increasingly dependent on embedded systems, which in most cases operate in an invisible manner to its users. This dependence makes the user vulnerable to risks due to failures that may occur. These failures can cause loss of lives or serious property and financial damage. Because of these facts, the quality of these products becomes a key point to have a stable system, free of errors and with all the features running. This testing is of essential importance to obtain a product with good quality. Due to the high cost of production and energy spent on tests, there is a need for further studies on different methods, to test an embedded system. In this context, this work aims at presenting the initial studies as the testing of the Embedded Operating System. The case study was focused on the exception handling routine of the eCos (Embedded Configurable Operating System), because it has a strong interaction between software and hardware, and this interaction is one of the main challenges encountered in testing embedded software. Therefore, this work aims at taking the first steps towards research related to testing an Embedded Operating System. After analyzing the experiments, it was noted that the main feature of the Embedded Operating System, eCos, the configurability, is an extra point of difficulty for the tests. It requires a detailed study of the code eCos, which is completely general, before the planning of tests, and could be spent much time in this activity. Another point is that the test becomes totally dependent on hardware. However, the experimental results presented for the case study of this study showed satisfactory.

A sociedade está cada vez mais dependente de sistemas embarcados, sendo que na grande maioria das vezes eles operam de maneira invisível aos seus usuários. Essa dependência torna esses usuários vulneráveis a riscos, devido às falhas que podem ocorrer. Essas falhas podem provocar perdas de vidas ou sérios danos materiais e financeiros. Devido a estes fatos, a qualidade destes produtos torna-se um ponto essencial para se ter um sistema estável, livre de erros e com todas as suas funcionalidades sendo executadas. De encontro a isso, a etapa de teste apresenta-se como indispensável e de relevada importância para a obtenção de um produto com uma boa qualidade. Devido ao alto custo de produção e energia gasto com testes, surge a necessidade de novos estudos, sobre diversificados métodos, para se testar um sistema embarcado. Neste contexto, este trabalho tem como objetivo apresentar os estudos iniciais do teste de um Sistema Operacional Embarcado (SOE), através de um estudo de caso focado na rotina de tratamento de exceção do eCos (Embedded Configurable Operating System), pois ela apresenta uma forte interação entre software e hardware, sendo que esta interação é um dos principais desafios encontrados no teste de um software embarcado. Com isso, este trabalho pretende dar o passo inicial para pesquisas relacionadas aos testes de um Sistema Operacional Embarcado. Após a análise dos experimentos, pôde-se notar que a principal característica do Sistema Operacional Embarcado eCos, a configurabilidade, é um ponto de dificuldade extra para a realização dos testes, pois exige um estudo detalhado do código do SOE, o qual é totalmente genérico, antes do planejamento dos testes, podendo ser gasto muito tempo nessa atividade. Outro ponto é que o teste torna-se totalmente dependente do hardware. Entretanto, os resultados experimentais apresentados para o estudo de caso do presente trabalho foram satisfatórios. / Society is increasingly dependent on embedded systems, which in most cases operate in an invisible manner to its users. This dependence makes the user vulnerable to risks due to failures that may occur. These failures can cause loss of lives or serious property and financial damage. Because of these facts, the quality of these products becomes a key point to have a stable system, free of errors and with all the features running. This testing is of essential importance to obtain a product with good quality. Due to the high cost of production and energy spent on tests, there is a need for further studies on different methods, to test an embedded system. In this context, this work aims at presenting the initial studies as the testing of the Embedded Operating System. The case study was focused on the exception handling routine of the eCos (Embedded Configurable Operating System), because it has a strong interaction between software and hardware, and this interaction is one of the main challenges encountered in testing embedded software. Therefore, this work aims at taking the first steps towards research related to testing an Embedded Operating System. After analyzing the experiments, it was noted that the main feature of the Embedded Operating System, eCos, the configurability, is an extra point of difficulty for the tests. It requires a detailed study of the code eCos, which is completely general, before the planning of tests, and could be spent much time in this activity. Another point is that the test becomes totally dependent on hardware. However, the experimental results presented for the case study of this study showed satisfactory.

La projection de la grève dans l’ordre international permet d’apprécier la richesse et la diversité de l’expression collective des travailleurs. Son développement à l’échelle internationale a généré une mise en concurrence accrue des différents droits nationaux. L’absence d’une réglementation matérielle traduit la difficulté juridique de maîtriser la notion et engendre un important conflit de lois et de juridictions. La nécessité de l’adoption de règles de conflit déterminant la loi et le juge compétent est donc devenue indispensable afin d’apporter une réponse à cette problématique conflictuelle. Le caractère de droit fondamental de la grève requiert cependant de faire l’objet d’une protection particulière lorsque sa valeur est remise en cause par une loi étrangère désignée par la règle de conflit. A ce titre l’exception d’ordre public classique permet d’évincer utilement la loi étrangère contraire à l’ordre public du for. L’exigence de la présence de liens de rattachement pertinents avec l’ordre juridique du for et d’un certain degré de gravité de la violation alléguée au droit fondamental de grève du for garantissent une intervention pondérée de l’exception d’ordre public. Elle constitue ainsi un moyen efficace de protéger le droit de grève tout en restant un mécanisme dont l’intervention reste exceptionnelle. / The development of the strike in the international order can appreciate richness and diversity of the collective expression of workers, it also increased competition from different national laws. The absence of a regulation reflects the difficulty of controlling the legal concept and it creates a conflict of laws and courts. The need for the adoption of rules of conflict, which determines the law and the competent court, has therefore become necessary to provide an answer to this conflict problem. The character of the fundamental right to strike, however, requires to be special protection when its value is questioned by an authority designated by the conflict rule foreign law. As such, the conventional public policy exception allows oust usefully foreign law contrary to public policy. The requirement of the presence of links relevant connecting with the legal order and a certain degree of gravity of the alleged violation of the fundamental right to strike ensures a weighted intervention public policy exception. It constitutes an effective means of protecting the right to strike while remaining a mechanism whose intervention is exceptional.

No description available.

[pt] Tratamento de exceções e o modo mais comum de lidar com erros no desenvolvimento de software robusto. Tratamento de exceções refere-se ao processo de sinalizar exceções quando erros em tempo de execução são detectados e de tomar ações para responder à ocorrência destas exceções. Apesar de objetivarem a melhoria da robustez de software, sistemas de software ainda são implementados sem se basear em uma política explícita para tratamento de exceções. Cada política define as decisões de projeto que governam como tratamento de exceções deve ser implementado num sistema. Tais políticas não são comumente documentadas e são apenas implicitamente definidas no projeto do sistema. Desta forma, desenvolvedores tendem a introduzir no código fonte violações das políticas implícitas e tais violações comumente causam falhas em sistemas de software. Neste contexto, o objetivo desta tese é apoiar desenvolvedores na detecção e reparação de violações de tratamento de exceções. Para atingir este objetivo, duas soluções complementares foram propostas. A primeira solução é baseada numa linguagem específica de domínio que apoia a detecção de violações ao definir explicitamente políticas de tratamento de exceções que devem ser obedecidas no código fonte. A linguagem proposta foi avaliada num estudo centrado no usuário e num estudo de caso. Com as observações e as experiências coletadas no estudo centrado no usuário, nós identificamos algumas características da linguagem que dificultavam o seu uso e que motivaram novos construtos. Além disso, os resultados do estudo de caso mostraram que violações e falhas costumam ter causas comuns. Portanto, violações de tratamento de exceção podem ser usadas para detectar causas de faltas relacionadas à exceções. Para complementar a detecção de violações, este trabalho também propôs uma solução para apoiar o reparo de violações de tratamento de exceções. Reparar estas violações requer raciocinar sobre o impacto global que mudanças em tratamento de exceções pode ter em diferentes partes do sistema. Desta forma, este trabalho propôs uma estratégia heurística de recomendação que leva em conta o contexto global onde violações ocorrem a fim de produzir recomendações. Cada recomendação produzida consiste em uma sequência de modificações que servem como um plano detalhado de como uma violação de tratamento de exceções pode ser removida do código fonte. A estratégia de recomendação proposta também se beneficia de especificações explícitas de políticas, embora sua disponibilidade não seja obrigatória. Os resultados das nossas avaliações empíricas revelaram que a estratégia de recomendação proposta produziu recomendações capazes de reparar violações em aproximadamente 70 por cento dos casos. Quando especificações de políticas estão disponíveis, a estratégia produziu recomendações capazes de reparar violações em 97 por cento dos casos. / [en] Exception handling is the most common way of dealing with exceptions in robust software development. Exception handling refers to the process of signaling exceptions upon the detection of runtime errors and taking actions to respond to their occurrence. Despite being aimed at improving software robustness, software systems are still implemented without relying on explicit exception handling policies. Each policy defines the design decisions governing how exception handling should be implemented in a system. These policies are often not documented and are only implicitly defined in the system design. Thus, developers tend to introduce in the source code violations of implicit policies and these violations commonly cause failures in software systems. In this context, the goal of this thesis is to support developers in detecting and repairing exception handling violations. To achieve this goal, two complementary solutions were proposed. The first solution is based on a domain-specific language supporting the detection of violations by explicitly defining exception handling policies to be enforced in the source code. The proposed language was evaluated with a user-centric study and a case study. With the observations and experiences gathered in the user-centric study, we identified some language characteristics that hindered its use and that motivated new language constructs. In addition, the results of the case study showed that violations and faults in exception handling share common causes. Therefore, violations can be used to detect potential causes of exceptionrelated failures. To complement the detection of exception handling violations, this work also proposed a solution for supporting the repair of exception handling violations. Repairing these violations requires reasoning about the global impact that exception handling changes might have in different parts of the system. Thus, this work proposed a recommender heuristic strategy that takes into account the global context of where violations occur to produce recommendations. Each recommendation produced consists of a sequence of modifications that serves as a detailed blueprint of how an exception handling violation can be removed from the source code. The proposed recommender strategy also takes advantage of explicit policy specifications, although their availability is not mandatory. The results of our empirical assessments revealed that the proposed recommender strategy produced recommendations able to repair violations in approximately 70 per cent of the cases. When policy specifications are available, it produced recommendations able to repair violations in 97 per cent of the cases.

This dissertation investigates current trends concerning exceptions. Exceptions influence the reliability of software systems. In order to develop software systems that are most robust, thus delivering higher availability at a lower development and operating cost, the occurence of exceptions needs to be reduced and the effects of the exceptions controlled. In order to do this, issues such as detection, identification, classification, propagation, handling, language implementation, software testing and reporting of exceptions must be attended to. Although some of these areas are well researched there are remaining problems. The quest is to establish if a unified exception-handling framework is possible and viable, which can address the issues and problems throughout the software development life cycle, and if so, the requirements for such a framework. / Computing / M.Sc. (Information Systems)