Yes / In this study, air, steam and CO2-enhanced gasification of rice straw was simulated using Aspen PlusTM simulator and compared in terms of their energy, exergy and environmental impacts. It was found that the addition of CO2 had less impact on syngas yield compared with gasification temperature. At lower CO2/Biomass ratios (below 0.25), gasification system efficiency (GSE) for both conventional and CO2-enhanced gasification was below 22.1%, and CO2-enhanced gasification showed a lower GSE than conventional gasification. However at higher CO2/Biomass ratios, CO2-enhanced gasification demonstrated higher GSE than conventional gasification. For CO2-enhanced gasification, GSE continued to increase to 58.8% when CO2/Biomass was raised to 0.87. In addition, it was found that syngas exergy increases with CO2 addition, which was mainly due to the increase in physical exergy. Chemical exergy was 2.05 to 4.85 times higher than physical exergy. The maximum exergy efficiency occurred within the temperature range of 800 oC to 900 oC because syngas exergy peaked in this range. For CO2-enhanced gasification, exergy efficiency was found to be more sensitive to temperature than CO2/Biomass ratios. In addition, the preliminary environmental analysis showed that CO2-enhanced gasification resulted in significant environmental benefits compared with stream gasification. However improved assessment methodologies are still needed to better evaluate the advantages of CO2 utilization.

Yes / In this study, a novel single-step synthesis of dimethyl ether (DME) based on CO2-enhanced biomass gasification was proposed and simulated using ASPEN PlusTM modelling. The exergetic and environmental evaluation was performed in comparison with a conventional system. It was found that the fuel energy efficiency, plant energy efficiency and plant exergetic efficiency of the CO2-enhanced system were better than those of the conventional system. The novel process produced 0.59 kg of DME per kg of gumwood with an overall plant energy efficiency of 65%, which were 28% and 5% higher than those of conventional systems, respectively. The overall exergetic efficiency of the CO2-enhanced system was also 7% higher. Exergetic analysis of each individual process unit in both the CO2-enhanced system and conventional systems showed that the largest loss occurred at gasification unit. However, the use of CO2 as gasifying agent resulted in a reduced loss at gasifier by 15%, indicating another advantage of the proposed system. In addition, the LCA analysis showed that the use of CO2 as gasifying agent could also result in less 21 environmental impacts compared with conventional systems, which subsequently made the CO2-22 enhanced system a promising option for a more environmental friendly synthesis of bio-DME. / Part of this work is sponsored by Ningbo Bureau of Science and Technology under its Innovation Team Scheme (2012B82011) and Major R&D Programme (2012B10042).

A tendência da indústria aeronáutica comercial é o desenvolvimento de aviões mais eficientes em termos de consumo de combustível e custos operacionais diretos. No que diz respeito ao consumo de combustível, algumas estratégias da indústria aeronáutica são o uso de uma aerodinâmica mais eficiente, materiais mais leves e motores e sistemas mais eficientes. O motor turbo jato convencional fornece potência elétrica para os sistemas de cabine (luzes, entretenimento, cozinha) e aviônicos, potência hidráulica para os sistemas de controle de vôo e potência pneumática para proteção contra formação de gelo e unidade de controle ambiental. Motores mais eficientes e diferentes tipos de arquiteturas de sistemas, como os sistemas mais elétricos, são promessas para reduzir o consumo de combustível. A fim de comparar os processos energéticos das arquiteturas de sistemas e motor numa mesma base, a exergia é o verdadeiro valor termodinâmico que deve ser utilizada como ferramenta de decisão para projeto de sistemas, motores e aeronaves, assim como parâmetro de otimização. Trabalhos de outros autores focaram apenas em redução da exergia destruída e nenhum trabalho apresentou um método harmonizador que consolide os parâmetros já existentes e crie outros parâmetros comparativos entre sistemas. Este trabalho propõe um método baseado em análise exergética para concepção e avaliação de sistemas aeronáuticos, que pode ser aplicado ao projeto de uma nova aeronave desde as fases de estudos conceituais e ante projeto até a fase de definição. O método pode suportar o projeto completo de uma aeronave como um único sistema, pois integra todos os subsistemas numa mesma estrutura. Os principais índices propostos neste trabalho são: exergia destruída, rendimento exergético, consumo específico de exergia, exergia destruída na missão e eficiência exergética da missão. Este trabalho também apresenta resultados comparativos ao aplicar o método exergético entre versões de uma mesma aeronave comercial regional, considerando sistemas de gerenciamento de ar (sistema de extração pneumática, unidade de controle ambiental e sistema de proteção contra formação de gelo) convencionais e mais elétricos. Para tanto, quantificam-se os requisitos de dimensionamento e faz-se a modelagem termodinâmica dos sistemas convencionais e mais elétricos, assim como a modelagem do motor para ambas as versões da aeronave. Os resultados da aplicação do método exergético evidenciam que os sistemas convencionais de gerenciamento de ar são os maiores consumidores de exergia de uma aeronave e que a substituição por sistemas mais elétricos é uma boa alternativa para melhorar a eficiência termodinâmica da mesma. Considerando os mesmos requisitos exergéticos de tração entre as duas versões de aeronaves, a abordagem mais elétrica apresenta maiores rendimentos exergéticos de missão em torno de 0,5%. Entretanto, a análise completa também leva em conta as diferenças de peso e arrasto entre as duas versões de aeronaves, a qual evidencia que a escolha por sistemas mais elétricos deve ser guiada pela variação dos requisitos de tração que esta aeronave possui com relação ao avião com sistemas convencionais. / A tendency of the commercial aeronautical industry is to develop more efficient aircraft in terms of fuel consumption and direct operational costs. Regarding fuel consumption, some strategies of the aeronautical industry are to use more efficient aerodynamics, lightweight materials and more efficient engines and systems. The conventional turbo fan engine mainly provides electric power for cabin systems (lights, entertainment, galleys) and avionics, hydraulic power for flight control systems and bleed air for ice protection and environmental control systems. More efficient engines and different types of systems architectures, such as more electric systems, are a promise to reduce fuel consumption. In order to compare the energy processes of systems and engine architectures at the same basis, exergy is the true thermodynamic value that shall be used as a decision tool to aircraft systems and engine design, and also as an optimization tool. Other works have focused only on reduction of exergy destruction and none have presented a method that harmonizes and consolidates the existing comparative parameters and creates new parameters among systems. This work proposes a method based on exergy analysis for conception and assessment of aircraft systems, that can be applied to an aircraft project from the conceptual and preliminary designs to the detail design. The method can support the design of the complete vehicle as a system and all of its subsystems in a common framework. The main proposed parameters in this work are: exergy destruction, exergy efficiency, specific exergy consumption, mission exergy destruction and mission exergy efficiency. This work also presents comparative results by applying the method to conventional and more electric version of the same regional commercial aircraft, considering conventional and electric air management systems (bleed system, environmental control system and ice protection system). In order to, sizing requirements are evaluated and thermodynamic models are performed for both conventional and more electric air management systems, and also engine models are performed for both aircraft. Results show that conventional air management systems are the higher exergy consumers among aircraft systems and the substitution for more electric systems is a good alternative to improve the aircraft thermodynamic efficiency. Considering the same thrust exergy requirements for both aircraft, the more electric version presents higher mission exergy efficiency around 0.5%. However, a complete trade-off also takes into account weight and drag differences of both versions, which makes evident that the selection for more electric systems must be driven by the variation of thrust requirements between more electric and conventional aircraft.

A análise exergética é aplicada ao corpo humano a fim de determinar o comportamento exergético padrão do corpo e do seu sistema respiratório para um indivíduo saudável em diferentes condições ambientais e intensidades de atividade física. Para isso, são calculadas as taxas de exergia destruída e as eficiências exergéticas do pulmão e do corpo como um todo para diferentes altitudes, períodos de aclimatação, temperaturas, umidades relativas e intensidades de atividade física. São utilizados modelos do corpo e do sistema respiratório disponíveis na literatura, assim como um modelo exergético do corpo. Para a análise exergética do sistema respiratório é proposto um modelo exergético baseado no modelo de transferência de calor e massa presente na literatura. A análise exergética é aplicada a dois volumes de controle: o corpo e o sistema respiratório, que compreende as vias aéreas e os pulmões. No primeiro volume de controle ocorre transferência de exergia para o ambiente através de convecção e radiação, assim como fluxos de exergia através da respiração e evaporação, além da geração de exergia pelo metabolismo exergético. No volume de controle relativo ao sistema respiratório, os fluxos de exergia estão associados ao ar inspirado e expirado e ao sangue venoso e arterial. A transferência de exergia ocorre através do calor gerado pelo metabolismo e do trabalho dos músculos respiratórios. Há também uma variação da exergia relativa ao metabolismo exergético do pulmão. Os resultados obtidos indicam que a eficiência exergética do pulmão diminui com a altitude e atividade física, enquanto a do corpo aumenta para ambos os parâmetros. Com relação à aclimatação, o período no qual as eficiências exergéticas são máximas é a partir de vinte dias. No que diz respeito à variação da temperatura e da umidade relativa, observa-se que quanto maior a intensidade da atividade física, menor a temperatura próxima do conforto. Nota-se que as eficiências do corpo e do pulmão têm comportamentos distintos, sendo o corpo mais influenciado pela intensidade da atividade física, enquanto o sistema respiratório é mais suscetível a alterações das condições ambientais. / Exergy analysis is applied to human body in order to determine the exergy behavior pattern of the body and its respiratory system for a healthy subject under different environmental conditions and physical activity intensities. In order to do so, destroyed exergy rate and exergy efficiencies are calculated for different altitudes, acclimatization periods, temperatures, relative humidities and exercise intensities. An integrated model of the body and its respiratory system and an exergy model of the body are utilized. To perform the exergy analysis of respiratory system, an exergy model based on that available in literature is proposed. Exergy analysis is applied to two control volumes: the human body as a whole and the respiratory system, which comprises the lungs and the airways. In the first control volume, the exergy rate transferred to the environment due to convection and radiation is considered, as well as the exergy flow rate associated with respiration and transpiration and the internal exergy generation caused by the exergy metabolism. In the second one, the exergy rates and flow rates are associated with the venous blood and the inspired air in the inlet and the arterial blood and expired air in the outlet. An internal exergy variation due to the exergy metabolism of the lung, an exergy transfer associated with the metabolism of the lung and the work performed by the respiratory muscles were also taken into account. The results indicate that the exergy efficiency of the lung decreases as the altitude and exercise intensity increase, while the exergy efficiency of the body increases for both parameters. Regarding acclimatization period, the greatest exergy efficiencies are obtained after twenty days. Concerning temperature and humidity variations, the higher the activity level, the lower the thermal comfort temperature. It is also possible to observe distinct behaviors between body and lung. The body is more influenced by the physical activity intensity, while the respiratory system is more affected by environmental parameters.

Interest in utilizing solar-driven refrigeration systems for air-conditioning or refrigeration purposes has grown continuously. Solar cooling is com-prised of many attractive features and is one path towards a more sus-tainable energy system. Compared to solar heating, the cooling load, par-ticularly for air-conditioning applications, is generally in phase with solar radiation. The objective of this thesis is to establish a fundamental basis for further research and development within the field of solar cooling. In this thesis, an overview of possible systems for solar powered refrigeration and air-conditioning systems will be presented. The concept of the ‘Solar Cool-ing Path’ is introduced, including a discussion of the energy source to the collector, and choice of cooling cycle to match cooling load. Brief infor-mation and comparisons of different refrigeration cycles are also pre-sented. The performance of solar cooling systems is strongly dependent on local conditions. The performance of a solar divan air-conditioning system in different locations will therefore be compared in this thesis. Solar cooling systems can be efficiently operated in locations where sufficient solar ra-diation and good heat sink are available. A solar-driven ejector refrigeration system has been selected as a case study for a further detailed investigation. A low temperature heat source can be used to drive the ejector refrigeration cycle, making the system suitable for integration with the solar thermal collector. Analysis of the solar driven ejector system is initiated by steady state analysis. System performance depends on the choice of working fluid (refrigerant), oper-ating conditions and ejector geometry. Results show that various kinds of refrigerants can be used. Also, thermodynamic characteristics of the re-frigerant strongly influence the performance of the cycle. An ejector re-frigeration cycle using natural working fluids generates good perform-ance and lower environmental impact, since traditional working fluids, CFC’s and HFC’s are strong climate gases. Further on, exergy analysis is used as a tool in identifying optimum operating conditions and investi-gating losses in the system. Exergy analysis illustrates that the distribu-tion of the irrervsibilities in the cycle between components depends strongly on the working temperatures. The most significant losses in the system are in the solar collector and ejector. Losses in the ejector pre-dominate over total losses within the system. In practice, the cooling load characteristic and solar radiation are not constant. Therefore, a dynamic analysis is useful for determining the characteristics of the system during the entire year, and dimensioning the important components of the solar collector subsystem, such as storage tanks. The final section of the thesis will deal with the ejector, the key compo-nent of the ejector refrigeration cycle. Characteristics of the actual ejector are shown to be quite complicated and its performance difficult to de-termine solely through theoretical analysis. Suggested design procedures and empirical equations for an ejector are offered in this thesis. Prelimi-nary test results for one fixed ejector dimension using R134a as the re-frigerant are also included. / QC 20100916

Dans un contexte de réduction des émissions de gaz à effet de serre (GES) et de forte volatilité du prix des énergies, les investissements en efficacité énergétique des sites industriels résultent souvent d'un processus de décision complexe. L'industriel doit pouvoir disposer d'outils lui permettant d'élaborer les solutions d'efficacité énergétique envisageables sur son site. Outre la recherche des sources d'énergie alternatives, que sont les énergies renouvelables, qui n'atteindront leur maturité technologique que sur le long terme, une solution à court terme consiste plutôt à favoriser une utilisation plus rationnelle de l'énergie. Pour relever ce défi, l'analyse exergétique apparaît comme un outil très efficace, car elle permet d'identifier précisément les sources d'inefficacité d'un procédé donné et de proposer des solutions technologiques visant à y remédier. Malheureusement, contrairement au concept d'enthalpie traditionnellement utilisé pour réaliser des bilans énergétiques sur un procédé, ce concept demeure assez difficile à appréhender et n'est que très rarement implémenté dans les simulateurs de procédés. Les travaux présentés dans ce document visent d'abordà rendre l'analyse exergétique plus accessible en l'intégrant dans un simulateur de procédés, puis à démontrer la pertinence d'une telle analyse pour l'amélioration de l'efficacité des procédés et des utilités associées. Dans un premier temps, une formulation générique et indépendante du choix du modèle thermodynamique pour l'évaluation de l'exergie des flux de matière est introduite. Une méthode de calcul des différentes contributions de l'exergie (contributions thermique, mécanique et chimique) est développée et un nouveau concept visant à évaluer les potentiels de récupérations thermique et mécanique maximales est introduit. Par la suite, la notion de bilan exergétique sur un système donné (opération unitaire ou procédé complet) est introduite. Pour l'évaluation des exergies des flux de travail et de chaleur, deux cas de figure sont étudiés : le cas de l'amélioration de procédés existants (« retrofitting ») et le cas de la conception de nouveaux procédés (« design»). Dans le cas de l'amélioration de procédés existants et afin d'aider au diagnostic énergétique de ces systèmes, des tableaux synthétiques proposant des solutions technologiques visant à réduire les irréversibilités ou les pertes exergétiques externes du procédé sont proposés. Par ailleurs, après une analyse comparative des différentes formulations d'efficacité exergétiques existant dans la littérature, la notion d'efficacité intrinsèque est retenue comme le critère le plus adapté pour une optimisation de l'efficacité exergétique d'un procédé complexe. Enfin, une nouvelle méthodologie structurée dédiée à l'analyse exergétique et permettant de pallier les lacunes des méthodologies existantes est présentée. L'ensemble de ces concepts est implémenté dans un premier prototype logiciel écrit en langage VBScript et intégré au simulateur de procédés ProSimPlus. Enfin, l'efficacité de la procédure est démontrée à travers une étude de cas portant sur la production de gaz naturel. / Energy issue is becoming increasingly crucial for industrial sector that consumes large quantities of utilities. Although the scientific world should continue to look for alternate sources of energy, a short-term solution would rather rely on a more rational use of energy. To face this challenge, exergy analysis appears a very efficient tool as it would enable to increase efficiency and reduce environmental impact of industrial processes. Unfortunately, contrary to enthalpy, this concept is rather difficult to handle and exergy analysis is rarely implemented in process simulators. In this context, the major objective of the study presented in this dissertation is to make exergy analysis more understandable by coupling it with the use of a process simulator and also to demonstrate the value of this approach for analysis of energy efficiency of processes and utilities. This dissertation presents a generic formulation for exergy of material streams that does not depend on the thermodynamic model, so that it could be easily implemented in a process simulator. The different contributions of exergy (thermal, mechanical and chemical) have been developed and new concept such as the maximal thermal and mechanical recovery potential has been introduced in order to pave the way for exergy analysis. The formulations of exergy balances on a real process are presented. For that purpose, the formulation of exergy for heat and work flux is developed. The formulation of exergy balances has been introduced for both design and retrofit situations and then a set of hints for the interpretation of this exergy balance has been given. Synthetic tables providing solutions to reduce irreversibilities and external losses have been introduced. Moreover, different kinds of exergy efficiency have been defined to provide a new criterion for the optimization of the process. A new structured methodology for exergy analysis is developed to overcome the limitations of existing methodologies. To make exergy analysis easier for any engineer, a first prototype has been developed to implement the calculation of exergy for the material streams in a process flowsheet modeled in ProSimPlus. Thanks to this prototype, exergy of each material stream appears in a synthesis table next to the traditional thermodynamic values such as the enthalpy. Finally, a case study on Natural Gas Liquids recovery process is presented to demonstrate the benefit of the exergy analysis for the improvement of existing processes. First, the exergy analysis permits to make an energy diagnosis of the process: it pinpoints the inefficiencies of the process which relies not only on irreversibilities but also on external exergy losses. Then, based upon respective values of internal and external losses and also thanks to the breaking down of exergy into it thermal, mechanical and chemical contributions, some technological solutions are suggested to propose a retrofit process. Finally, the exergy efficiency criteria enable to optimize the operating parameters of the process in order to improve its energy efficiency.

A la veille d’une nouvelle conférence sur le climat, les questions environnementales demeurent plus que jamais au premier plan de la vie publique. La lutte contre le réchauffement climatique, et les émissions de gaz à effet de serre, dont l’attribution à l’activité humaine fait globalement l’objet d’un consensus scientifique, constituent l’un des plus grands défis de l’humanité pour les prochaines années. Dans ce contexte, l’amélioration de l’efficacité énergétique des sites de production est une des préoccupations des industriels. Les réglementations environnementales, et les fluctuations des cours de l’énergie les forcent à continuellement améliorer leurs procédés pour en maintenir la compétitivité. Ceux-ci doivent ainsi pouvoir disposer d’outils leur permettant d’effectuer des diagnostics énergétiques sur les installations, leur facilitant la prise de décision et leur permettant d’élaborer des solutions d’efficacité énergétique sur leurs sites industriels. Les travaux présentés dans ce document visent à introduire une méthodologie d’analyse et de rétro-conception pour l’amélioration énergétique des procédés industriels. Cette méthodologie, qui s’appuie sur une utilisation combinée de la méthode du pincement et de l’analyse exergétique, se décompose en trois grandes étapes : la première comprend le recueil des données, la modélisation et la simulation du procédé. La deuxième étape, dédiée à l’analyse du procédé, est elle-même divisée en deux phases. La première, qui s’appuie pour l’essentiel sur l’utilisation de la méthodologie du pincement, s’intéresse uniquement à l’analyse du système de fourniture et de récupération de l’énergie thermique. Si cela s’avère nécessaire, le procédé complet est étudié dans une deuxième phase. L’analyse pincement se limitant à l’étude des procédés thermiques, une méthodologie d’analyse exergétique est mise en œuvre. Cette méthodologie s’appuie sur l’implémentation de l’analyse exergétique dans l’environnement ProSimPlus, entreprise par Ali Ghannadzadeh, et poursuivie pendant cette thèse. Les formules d'exergie ont été affinées pour s’ajuster aux différents modèles thermodynamiques. L’approche d’analyse proposée dans ce manuscrit est basée sur l’utilisation d’une nouvelle représentation graphique des bilans exergétiques : le ternaire exergétique. Ce dernier permet d’illustrer tous les aspects des bilans exergétiques et ainsi d'assister l’ingénieur dans l’analyse du procédé. La troisième étape s’intéresse à la conception pour l’amélioration énergétique. Alors que l’analyse du pincement propose des solutions d’amélioration, l’analyse exergétique ne le permet pas. Elle nécessite l’apport d’une certaine expertise pour aboutir au développement de solutions d’améliorations. Pour pallier ce problème, l’expertise est en partie capitalisée dans un système de raisonnement à partir de cas. Ce système permet de proposer des solutions à des problèmes nouveaux en analysant les similarités avec des problèmes anciens. Cet outil se révèle utile pour définir des solutions locales d’améliorations énergétiques. L’analyse du pincement associée à des outils numériques est ensuite utilisée pour concevoir des propositions complètes d’améliorations. La seconde partie de ce manuscrit présente cette étape. / On the eve of a new conference on climate change, environmental issues remain more than ever at the forefront of public life. Tackling climate change, and reducing greenhouse gases emissions, that are largely attributable to human activity, represents one of the biggest challenges for humanity in the coming years. In such a context, the promotion of best practices to enable an efficient utilization of energy has emerged as one of the major point of focus. High volatility of energy prices and the increasingly stringent environmental regulations have forced industrials to continuously improve their processes in order to cut the energy consumption down and reduce GHG emissions. For this purpose, industrials need tools to perform energy audits on facilities, to ease decision-making and to enable them to develop their energy efficiency solutions on their sites. In this context, the study presented in this dissertation aims at introducing a new systematic procedure for energy diagnosis and retrofit of industrial processes. This methodology presented in this dissertation is divided into three stages: the first involves the data collection, the modeling and simulation of the process. The second stage, dedicated to the analysis of the process, is subdivided into two phases. The first, which is essentially relying on the Pinch methodology, is only concerned with the analysis of the thermal energy supply and recovery system. If necessary, the complete process is studied in the second phase of the analysis. Pinch analysis being limited to the analysis of thermal systems, an exergy analysis methodology is then implemented. This methodology is based on the implementation of the Exergy analysis in the ProSimPlus modelling and simulation environment, undertaken by A. Ghannadzadeh, and pursued in this study. The formulas proposed by Ali Ghannadzadeh have been adjusted to take into account different thermodynamic approaches. A new graphical representation of exergy balances, the exergetic ternary diagram, is also introduced to assist engineers in the analysis process. It enables to illustrate all aspects of exergy balances, i.e. the irreversibility, the exergy losses and the exergy efficiencies of each unit operation. The automation of this new graphical layout was made possible by the implementation of a generic exergy efficiency in the simulator. This analysis paves the way to the third step of the overall methodology dedicated to retrofitting. This methodology is detailed in the first part of this dissertation. While Pinch analysis proposes improvement solutions, the Exergy analysis does not. The key to achieving a significant exergy analysis lies in the engineer’s ability to propose alternatives for reducing thermodynamic imperfections, thus exergy analysis is supposed to be undertaken by an experienced user. To overcome this problem, the expertise is partly capitalized in a case-based reasoning system. This system allows the proposition of solutions to new problems by analyzing the similarities with solved problems. This tool is useful for defining local solutions for energy improvements. The Pinch analysis combined to numerical tools is then used to develop alternatives. This third step is developed in the third part of the manuscript.

A análise exergética é aplicada ao corpo humano a fim de determinar o comportamento exergético padrão do corpo e do seu sistema respiratório para um indivíduo saudável em diferentes condições ambientais e intensidades de atividade física. Para isso, são calculadas as taxas de exergia destruída e as eficiências exergéticas do pulmão e do corpo como um todo para diferentes altitudes, períodos de aclimatação, temperaturas, umidades relativas e intensidades de atividade física. São utilizados modelos do corpo e do sistema respiratório disponíveis na literatura, assim como um modelo exergético do corpo. Para a análise exergética do sistema respiratório é proposto um modelo exergético baseado no modelo de transferência de calor e massa presente na literatura. A análise exergética é aplicada a dois volumes de controle: o corpo e o sistema respiratório, que compreende as vias aéreas e os pulmões. No primeiro volume de controle ocorre transferência de exergia para o ambiente através de convecção e radiação, assim como fluxos de exergia através da respiração e evaporação, além da geração de exergia pelo metabolismo exergético. No volume de controle relativo ao sistema respiratório, os fluxos de exergia estão associados ao ar inspirado e expirado e ao sangue venoso e arterial. A transferência de exergia ocorre através do calor gerado pelo metabolismo e do trabalho dos músculos respiratórios. Há também uma variação da exergia relativa ao metabolismo exergético do pulmão. Os resultados obtidos indicam que a eficiência exergética do pulmão diminui com a altitude e atividade física, enquanto a do corpo aumenta para ambos os parâmetros. Com relação à aclimatação, o período no qual as eficiências exergéticas são máximas é a partir de vinte dias. No que diz respeito à variação da temperatura e da umidade relativa, observa-se que quanto maior a intensidade da atividade física, menor a temperatura próxima do conforto. Nota-se que as eficiências do corpo e do pulmão têm comportamentos distintos, sendo o corpo mais influenciado pela intensidade da atividade física, enquanto o sistema respiratório é mais suscetível a alterações das condições ambientais. / Exergy analysis is applied to human body in order to determine the exergy behavior pattern of the body and its respiratory system for a healthy subject under different environmental conditions and physical activity intensities. In order to do so, destroyed exergy rate and exergy efficiencies are calculated for different altitudes, acclimatization periods, temperatures, relative humidities and exercise intensities. An integrated model of the body and its respiratory system and an exergy model of the body are utilized. To perform the exergy analysis of respiratory system, an exergy model based on that available in literature is proposed. Exergy analysis is applied to two control volumes: the human body as a whole and the respiratory system, which comprises the lungs and the airways. In the first control volume, the exergy rate transferred to the environment due to convection and radiation is considered, as well as the exergy flow rate associated with respiration and transpiration and the internal exergy generation caused by the exergy metabolism. In the second one, the exergy rates and flow rates are associated with the venous blood and the inspired air in the inlet and the arterial blood and expired air in the outlet. An internal exergy variation due to the exergy metabolism of the lung, an exergy transfer associated with the metabolism of the lung and the work performed by the respiratory muscles were also taken into account. The results indicate that the exergy efficiency of the lung decreases as the altitude and exercise intensity increase, while the exergy efficiency of the body increases for both parameters. Regarding acclimatization period, the greatest exergy efficiencies are obtained after twenty days. Concerning temperature and humidity variations, the higher the activity level, the lower the thermal comfort temperature. It is also possible to observe distinct behaviors between body and lung. The body is more influenced by the physical activity intensity, while the respiratory system is more affected by environmental parameters.

A tendência da indústria aeronáutica comercial é o desenvolvimento de aviões mais eficientes em termos de consumo de combustível e custos operacionais diretos. No que diz respeito ao consumo de combustível, algumas estratégias da indústria aeronáutica são o uso de uma aerodinâmica mais eficiente, materiais mais leves e motores e sistemas mais eficientes. O motor turbo jato convencional fornece potência elétrica para os sistemas de cabine (luzes, entretenimento, cozinha) e aviônicos, potência hidráulica para os sistemas de controle de vôo e potência pneumática para proteção contra formação de gelo e unidade de controle ambiental. Motores mais eficientes e diferentes tipos de arquiteturas de sistemas, como os sistemas mais elétricos, são promessas para reduzir o consumo de combustível. A fim de comparar os processos energéticos das arquiteturas de sistemas e motor numa mesma base, a exergia é o verdadeiro valor termodinâmico que deve ser utilizada como ferramenta de decisão para projeto de sistemas, motores e aeronaves, assim como parâmetro de otimização. Trabalhos de outros autores focaram apenas em redução da exergia destruída e nenhum trabalho apresentou um método harmonizador que consolide os parâmetros já existentes e crie outros parâmetros comparativos entre sistemas. Este trabalho propõe um método baseado em análise exergética para concepção e avaliação de sistemas aeronáuticos, que pode ser aplicado ao projeto de uma nova aeronave desde as fases de estudos conceituais e ante projeto até a fase de definição. O método pode suportar o projeto completo de uma aeronave como um único sistema, pois integra todos os subsistemas numa mesma estrutura. Os principais índices propostos neste trabalho são: exergia destruída, rendimento exergético, consumo específico de exergia, exergia destruída na missão e eficiência exergética da missão. Este trabalho também apresenta resultados comparativos ao aplicar o método exergético entre versões de uma mesma aeronave comercial regional, considerando sistemas de gerenciamento de ar (sistema de extração pneumática, unidade de controle ambiental e sistema de proteção contra formação de gelo) convencionais e mais elétricos. Para tanto, quantificam-se os requisitos de dimensionamento e faz-se a modelagem termodinâmica dos sistemas convencionais e mais elétricos, assim como a modelagem do motor para ambas as versões da aeronave. Os resultados da aplicação do método exergético evidenciam que os sistemas convencionais de gerenciamento de ar são os maiores consumidores de exergia de uma aeronave e que a substituição por sistemas mais elétricos é uma boa alternativa para melhorar a eficiência termodinâmica da mesma. Considerando os mesmos requisitos exergéticos de tração entre as duas versões de aeronaves, a abordagem mais elétrica apresenta maiores rendimentos exergéticos de missão em torno de 0,5%. Entretanto, a análise completa também leva em conta as diferenças de peso e arrasto entre as duas versões de aeronaves, a qual evidencia que a escolha por sistemas mais elétricos deve ser guiada pela variação dos requisitos de tração que esta aeronave possui com relação ao avião com sistemas convencionais. / A tendency of the commercial aeronautical industry is to develop more efficient aircraft in terms of fuel consumption and direct operational costs. Regarding fuel consumption, some strategies of the aeronautical industry are to use more efficient aerodynamics, lightweight materials and more efficient engines and systems. The conventional turbo fan engine mainly provides electric power for cabin systems (lights, entertainment, galleys) and avionics, hydraulic power for flight control systems and bleed air for ice protection and environmental control systems. More efficient engines and different types of systems architectures, such as more electric systems, are a promise to reduce fuel consumption. In order to compare the energy processes of systems and engine architectures at the same basis, exergy is the true thermodynamic value that shall be used as a decision tool to aircraft systems and engine design, and also as an optimization tool. Other works have focused only on reduction of exergy destruction and none have presented a method that harmonizes and consolidates the existing comparative parameters and creates new parameters among systems. This work proposes a method based on exergy analysis for conception and assessment of aircraft systems, that can be applied to an aircraft project from the conceptual and preliminary designs to the detail design. The method can support the design of the complete vehicle as a system and all of its subsystems in a common framework. The main proposed parameters in this work are: exergy destruction, exergy efficiency, specific exergy consumption, mission exergy destruction and mission exergy efficiency. This work also presents comparative results by applying the method to conventional and more electric version of the same regional commercial aircraft, considering conventional and electric air management systems (bleed system, environmental control system and ice protection system). In order to, sizing requirements are evaluated and thermodynamic models are performed for both conventional and more electric air management systems, and also engine models are performed for both aircraft. Results show that conventional air management systems are the higher exergy consumers among aircraft systems and the substitution for more electric systems is a good alternative to improve the aircraft thermodynamic efficiency. Considering the same thrust exergy requirements for both aircraft, the more electric version presents higher mission exergy efficiency around 0.5%. However, a complete trade-off also takes into account weight and drag differences of both versions, which makes evident that the selection for more electric systems must be driven by the variation of thrust requirements between more electric and conventional aircraft.

Dans le contexte des recherches de réductions de l’impact environnemental des machines frigorifiques, l’utilisation du gaz carbonique comme fluide frigorigène est aujourd’hui une réalité. Toutefois, les propriétés thermodynamiques du CO2 impliquent un cycle frigorifique transcritique à basses performances énergétiques pour une température de source chaude proche de l’ambiante. Pour étendre le champ d’application de ce fluide, il est nécessaire d’augmenter l’efficacité des machines transcritiques. L’analyse exergétique du cycle montre que les principales pertes de performances proviennent essentiellement de la détente isenthalpique et de la compression. Afin de réduire ces pertes, l’utilisation d’un éjecteur comme organe principale de détente se présente comme une solution prometteuse. Ce travail apporte une contribution à l’étude des machines frigorifiques aux CO2 transcritique équipées d’éjecteur à la fois expérimentale et numérique pour développer la compréhension des phénomènes qui se produisent à l’intérieure de l’éjecteur afin d’améliorer les outils de dimensionnement de cet organe. L’étude numérique comporte un modèle unidimensionnel de l’écoulement du dioxyde de carbone à travers l’éjecteur. Ce modèle constitue un bon outil de prédiction des points de fonctionnement de l’éjecteur et des caractéristiques globales de l’écoulement : débit, vitesse, enthalpie... Le modèle reste une approche perfectible d'un milieu complexe. Il constitue néanmoins un bon outil pour l'optimisation de la géométrie de l’éjecteur. Après le dimensionnement et la fabrication de l’éjecteur, des essais comparatifs ont été menés sur la machine frigorifique au CO2 en fonctionnement avec et sans éjecteur. L’étude expérimentale a montré que l’éjecteur améliore jusqu’à 12,5 % la puissance frigorifique produite et 17 % le coefficient de performance de la machine. Les résultats expérimentaux réalisés ont été utilisés pour valider le modèle unidimensionnel développé, un accord satisfaisant a été trouvé entre les résultats issus du modèle et ceux expérimentaux, particulièrement en terme de débits avec un écart de l’ordre de 9 %. / Carbon dioxide is being advocated to reduce the environmental impact of the refrigeration systems. However, the thermodynamic properties of CO2 imply supercritical refrigerating cycle with low energy performance when the hot source temperature is near that of the environment. The expansion losses of an isenthalpic throttling process have been identified as one of the largest irreversibilities of transcritical refrigeration cycles, which contribute to the low efficiency of such cycles. In order to recover the expansion losses and increase the cycle efficiency, it has been proposed to replace the expansion valve with an ejector expansion device. This work is devoted to the numerical and experimental study of the ejector expansion devices used in a transcritical vapor compression system using carbon dioxide as the refrigerant. The numerical study includes a one-dimensional model of the CO2 two-phase ejector. The developed model is a good tool for predicting the operation conditions of the ejector and the overall characteristics of the flow (mass flow, velocity, enthalpy.. The model is a good tool to optimizing the geometry of the ejector, although it can be improved. The ejector was manufactured and incorporated into an instrumented test bench. Experimental study showed that the transcritical CO2 refrigeration system using an ejector as the expansion device outperformed a conventional expansion-valve transcritical CO2 system in COP and cooling capacity by approximately 17 % and 12,5 %, respectively. The experimental results were used to validate the one-dimensional model, a satisfactory agreement was found between the numerical and experimental results, especially in terms of mass flow with a difference of 9 %.