This thesis reports an exploration of how the use and construction of external representations through methods of signalling and conversational grounding, support the sharing of ideas for spatial design tasks and how that support changes as a function of access to a shared works pace, external representations and memory support. Further aims of the study were to develop a coding scheme to identify the use of language in establishing and maintaining mutual understanding between collaborators. Pilot studies identified appropriate tasks relating to visual problem-solving design tasks for use in the main studies. For the main studies, video recordings were obtained, coded and time-stamped and analysis of the duration of grounding and activity codes, as well as concurrent grounding and activity, was carried on the impact of tasks and constraints on communication. For the first study 36 pairs of participants were used to investigate collaborative problem-solving and visual access to a shared workspace was varied. For the second study, 30 pairs of participants were used to investigate how ‘learned’ solutions are communicated. Again visual access to a shared workspace was varied, together with the manipulation of the opportunity for communicators to have access to external representations and memory support. Evidence was obtained to support the principles of ‘co-operation' and 'least collaborative effort' in conversation. Differences in the use and construction of external representations were discussed in terms of compensations, and changes in dyadic interactivity, made as a function of limitations in the media settings and the purpose of the joint activity. Other issues emerged relating to perceived communication efficacy as a result of a divided workspace focus and competition between problem-solving and grounding resources. These findings have implications for design cognition and communication as well as the technological support offered to support such activities.

This thesis presents work on analytical reasoning with external representations (ERs) using problems similar to those used in the US GRE college-entrance examination. The work investigates the factors associated with effective ER use in situations where subjects select, construct and reason with their own ERs. Practically all previous work has tended to focus solely upon performance rather than process. In this thesis the emphasis is upon cognitive processes during the entire time-course of reasoning with ERs, from problem comprehension through to answer selection. A background to the work is provided by 2 comprehensive reviews of: 1.) previous research on ERs and reasoning and 2.) the cognitive and semantic properties of ERs. Results from three empirical studies are reported. The first study examined a large corpus of 'workscratchings' produced by subjects as they solved paper and pencil-based analytical reasoning problems under test conditions. The workscratching ERs showed great diversity between and within subjects and across a range of problems. They included lists, various kinds of table, set diagrams, node and arc diagrams, first-order and propositioned logic, plans and natural language. It is shown that problem-solving performance is related to the type of ER used in the solution. The second study utilised a computer-based system (switchERI). The system administered analytical reasoning problems and provided a. range of ER construction environments for the subject to choose and switch between. User-system interactions were recorded dynamically during problem solving. This methodology permitted microanalyses of the cognitive events at each stage during the time-course of problem solving. A process account of analytical reasoning with ERs is developed in which five major stages are identified - problem comprehension, ER selection, ER construction, read-off from the ER and answer selection/responding. A range of common slips and misconceptions are identified at each stage. The results show, inter alia, that subjects whose responses are consistent with their ERs perform better than subjects whose responses are inconsistent with their ERs even if the ER is partially incorrect. The data from the workscratching analysis and switchERI study informed the design of' switchERII, a second system. SwitchERII incorporates a. representation of the semantics of Euler's Circles, dynamically parses the user's representation and provides feedback and advice. A third study was conducted with the switchERII system. Few, if any, studies to date have attempted to relate subjects' prior knowledge of ER formalisms to their reasoning performance. Subjects' prior knowledge of ER formalisms was assessed in both switchER studies. It was observed that subjects' performance on representation interpretation tasks does not necessarily predict their performance in conditions where they select and construct their own representations. The reasons for the decoupling are discussed. Data from all three studies show that subjects often utilise multiple representations in their solutions, either concurrently or serially via. ER switching. Two distinctly different types of switching were observed. One kind ('thrashing') is associated with poorer performance and reflects less comprehensive prior knowledge, inability to select au appropriate ER and hazy problem comprehension. Judicious switching, on the other hand, is associated with high levels of problem comprehension and skilled matching of the ERs' properties to changing task demands. It is claimed that effective reasoning with ERs involves complex interactions between at least three factors: (a.) within-subject variables such as the subject's representational repertoire (prior knowledge) and representational modality preferences (cognitive style); (b.) skill at overcoming a variety of barriers to comprehension and an ability to discern the salient attributes and characteristics of different problem types and (c.) an understanding of the semantic and cognitive properties of graphical and non-graphical ERs coupled with an ability to match those properties to the problem's task demands. It is suggested that the role of externalisation in reasoning with ERs may be to facilitate the swapping of information between cognitive subsystems. A mechanism by which the use of diagrammatic ERs may facilitate self-explanation is also proposed. The thesis concludes with an argument in favour of a domain-independent 'ER curriculum'. It is suggested that direct instruction in the use of a range of ERs might equip students with wider representational repertoires and hence allow them more scope to indulge their representational preferences. Finally, several directions for future work are proposed. These include extending the representational semantics of switchERII, evaluating various types of system feedback and implementing a mechanism for checking for slips during read-off from ERs.

Published Article / This article reviews research on learning with external representations and provides a theoretical background on how to optimize learning from external representations. General factors, such as the type of material to be learned, learner characteristics and the testing method, are some of the variables that can determine if graphic medium can increase a subject's comprehension and if such comprehension can be accurately measured. These factors are discussed and represented by a model to suggest how external representations can be effectively used in a learning environment. Two key conclusions are drawn from the observation made in these studies. Firstly, the proper design of a particular external representation and supporting text can promote relevant activities that ultimately contribute to fuller understanding of the content. Secondly, external representations must be developed to address the size complexity and variety of the content that must be analysed in order to extract knowledge for scientific discovery.

Thesis advisor: Elida V. Laski / Use of base-10 decomposition strategy for addition in first grade is related to mathematics advantage in the later years (Geary et al., 2013), yet we know little about the strategy’s prevalence among first graders or factors contributing to its use. The present study sought to bridge this gap by testing 87 first graders in the greater Boston area. The results confirmed previous findings that showed that in the last 10 years first graders in the US have increased in frequency of base-10 decomposition. Children who had better knowledge of basic number facts used it more frequently, particularly on problems with smaller addends. Further, the study tested whether an instructional intervention would be effective in increasing reliance on base-10 decomposition. 61 of the original participants were selected to take part in an experimental intervention that taught them to execute the strategy while relying on external representations – sometimes known as manipulatives. Informed by two lines of research, the present study tested the hypothesis that the efficacy of the intervention may depend on whether one or multiple external representations are used for instruction. The results showed a dramatic increase in first graders’ mental base-10 decomposition use as a result of the intervention. Children grew in their use of the strategy at the same rates across genders, levels of basic arithmetic fluency, and working memory. Overall, the results showed that relying on multiple representations during instruction appears more beneficial to strategy use on mental arithmetic, but this benefit may be conditional on how well the children have mastered and abstracted the strategy. Implications to classroom interventions aimed to increase the use of advanced arithmetic strategies are discussed. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2016. / Submitted to: Boston College. Lynch School of Education. / Discipline: Counseling, Developmental and Educational Psychology.

When studying the molecular aspect of the life sciences, learners must be introduced to somewhat inaccessible phenomena that occur at the sub-micro scale. Despite the difficulties, students need to be familiar with and understand the highly dynamic nature of molecular processes. Thus, external representations1 (ERs) can be considered unavoidable and essential tools for student learning. Besides meeting the challenge of interpreting external representations, learners also encounter a large array of abstract concepts2, which are challenging to understand (Orgill & Bodner, 2004). Both teachers and learners use metaphorical language as a way to relate these abstract phenomena to more familiar ones from everyday life. Scientific papers, as well as textbooks and popular science articles, are packed with metaphors, analogies and intentional expressions. Like ERs, the use of metaphors and analogies is inevitable and necessary when communicating knowledge concerning molecular phenomena. Therefore, a large body of published research related to metaphors concerns science teachers’ and textbook writers’ interpretation and use of metaphors (Harrison & Treagust, 2006). In this paper we present a theoretical framework for examining metaphorical language use in relation to abstract phenomena and external representations. The framework was verified by using it to analyse students’ meaning-making in relation to an animation representing the sub-microscopic and abstract process of ATP-synthesis in Oxidative Phosphorylation. We seek to discover the animator’s intentions while designing the animation and to identify the metaphors that students use while interacting with the animation. Two of these metaphors serve as examples of a metaphor analysis, in which the characteristics of metaphors are outlined. To our knowledge,  no strategies to identify and understand the characteristics, benefits, and potential pitfalls of particular metaphors have, to date, been presented in science education research. Our aspiration is to contribute valuable insights into metaphorical language use at the interface between external representations, molecular processes, and student learning.

In Life Sciences Education, the use of educational external representations (ERs) such as diagrams, models and animations are increasingly appearing in learning and teaching resources. However, their effectiveness is limited if learners experience learning difficulties due to lack of visual literacy and spatial ability skills to work with ERs. The study explored the level of visual literacy of 225 Grade 10 Life Sciences learners in cytology across six secondary schools in Pretoria, Gauteng. It was theorised that ERs need to be integrated in the Life Sciences curricula to develop learners’ visual literacy and spatial ability skills. With this theory, the study aimed to explore the visual literacy of Grade 10 Life Sciences learners and the influence of gender and school location on the visual literacy and spatial ability skills of the learners. Through a quantitative research method a Life Sciences visual literacy questionnaire and a spatial ability test were used to collect data. Collected data was analysed descriptively and inferentially through Statistical Package Social Sciences Version 23. The results showed that most Grade 10 Life Sciences learners lack average visual literacy skills. Furthermore, the results showed that gender doesn’t play a role on the learners’ performance in visual literacy skills as both genders performed equally in both tests, On the other hand, the results showed that the location of the school (urban, rural or township) has an effect on the learners’ performance in visual literacy skills. Teachers need to incorporate different ERs that would stimulate different senses and which will also enhance learners’ visual literacy and spatial ability skills in their lessons. A conclusion and some recommendations for future research are given. / Dissertation (MEd)--University of Pretoria, 2017. / Science, Mathematics and Technology Education / MEd / Unrestricted

Η ανθρώπινη σκέψη χαρακτηρίζεται από τη χρήση ειδών αναπαράστασεων για την ίδια έννοια και από τη δυνατότητα προσφυγής σε πολλαπλά συστήματα αναπαράστασης. Ως εκ τούτου, η ιδέα της αναπαράστασης αποτελεί βασικό εργαλείο της Σύγχρονης Διδακτικής των Μαθηματικών αφού οι αναπαραστάσεις θεωρούνται σύμφυτες με τα μαθηματικά. Οι αναπαραστάσεις που χρησιμοποιούνται στη μαθησιακή διαδικασία καθορίζουν σε σημαντικό βαθμό τα όσα μαθαίνει ο μαθητής και το πόσο εύκολα επιτυγχάνεται η κατανόηση των εννοιών στα μαθηματικά. Ο ρόλος αυτός αποκτά ιδιαίτερο ενδιαφέρον, όταν αναφερόμαστε στα σχολικά βιβλία αφού, αυτά εξακολουθούν να έχουν το κύριο βάρος στη μαθησιακή και διδακτική διαδικασία τόσο σε διάφορες χώρες, όσο και στην Ελλάδα ιδιαίτερα. Στην παρούσα εργασία καταγράφονται οι τύποι εξωτερικής αναπαράστασης και η συχνότητα εμφάνισής τους στα σύνθετα προβλήματα στα κεφάλαια που αναφέρονται στις πράξεις των ακεραίων αριθμών. Για το σκοπό αυτό μελετώνται τα σχολικά εγχειρίδια του παλιού και του νέου Αναλυτικού Προγράμματος Σπουδών. Η εργασία έχει δομηθεί σε τέσσερα μέρη: στο πρώτο μέρος γίνεται προσπάθεια να αποσαφηνιστούν οι όροι "αναπαράσταση" και "εξωτερικές αναπαραστάσεις" γενικά και στο χώρο των μαθηματικών ειδικότερα. Στο δεύτερο μέρος περιγράφεται ο ερευνητικός σχεδιασμός και ο τρόπος επεξεργασίας των εμπειρικών δεδομένων. Στο τρίτο μέρος παρουσιάζονται τα αποτελέσματα της επεξεργασίας των δεδομένων σε δύο άξονες (οριζόντιος και κάθετος. Η εργασία ολοκληρώνεται με το τέταρτο μέρος στο οποίο γίνεται προσπάθεια σύνοψης και γενικού σχολιασμού των αποτελεσμάτων και την εξαγωγή συμπερασμάτων / -

External representations (ERs), such as diagrams, animations, and dynamic models are vital tools for communicating and constructing knowledge in biochemistry. To build a meaningful understanding of structure, function, and process, it is essential that students become visually literate by mastering key cognitive skills that are essential for interpreting and visualizing ERs. In this article, first we describe a model of seven factors influencing students’ ability to learn from ERs. Second, we use this model and relevant literature to identify eight cognitive skills central to visual literacy in biochemistry. Third, we present simple examples of tasks as a foundation for designing more sophisticated and complex items for assessing and developing students’ visual literacy. We conclude that visual literacy is fundamental to the development of sound conceptual understanding and it is crucial to develop visual skills in parallel with meaningful learning outcomes in all biochemistry curricula. / <p>All issues of BAMBED become freely available after a two-year hold</p>

Dans cette thèse est d'abord considéré comment l'énergie est enseignée et apprise à l'école, montrant les divergences entre définition scientifique et sociétale de l'énergie, et considérant les unités d'énergie et la confusion qu'elles engendrent. Des perspectives pour l'éducation et la gestion de l'énergie sont présentées. Ensuite, l'attention est portée sur les représentations de l'énergie proposées par les systèmes domestiques de gestion, et une classification originale basée sur des stratégiques didactiques est proposée. Les obstacles majeurs rencontrés par les designers révèlent comment les outils de gestion de l'énergie peuvent être adaptés à la cognition humaine. Enfin, les capacités humaines de traitement des grandeurs numériques sont examinées en profondeur du point de vue de la cognition incarnée. Un cadre est construit au travers duquel l'impact des représentations externes de l'énergie sur l'apprentissage et la comparaison peut être établi, compris, et prédit. Ceci mène à deux études empiriques. La première étude teste l'effet de la représentation externe (symbolique ou spatiale) sur le rappel et la comparaison de mémoire. Précision et temps de réponse sont les variables dépendantes dans la comparaison. Les résultats indiquent un traitement analogique dans les deux conditions. La représentation externe symbolique accroît la précision dans le rappel et la comparaison, et la représentation externe spatiale accroît la vitesse de comparaison. La seconde étude teste l'effet de la spatialité, de l'ancrage, et de la physicalité dans les représentations externes, également sur le rappel et les comparaisons de mémoire, utilisant les mêmes variables dépendantes. Les résultats indiquent un traitement analogique dans toutes les conditions. La spatialité décroît la précision dans le rappel mais accroît la vitesse de comparaison. Ancrage et physicalité n'ont pas d'effet. Les résultats corroborent l'hypothèse de la cognition ancrée sur les simulations mentales (Barsalou, 1999, 2008; Wilson, 2002) ainsi que la perspective de Dehaene (1997) sur la cognition numérique, dans laquelle le sens du nombre est basé sur un accumulateur analogique et non discret. Implications théoriques et applications pratiques sont discutées. / In this thesis is first considered how energy is taught and learned about in school, focusing on the discrepancies between a scientific definition of energy and a societal definition of energy, and discussing units of energy and the confusion they induce. Perspectives for education and energy management are provided. Then, focus is placed on the representations of energy provided in home energy management systems, seeking to propose an original classification based on educational strategies. The major obstacles met by designers reveal how energy management tools can be adapted to human cognition. Next, human numerical and magnitude processing abilities are discussed in depth, taking the viewpoint of grounded cognition and building a framework through which the impact of external representations of energy on learning and comparing can be established, understood, and predicted. This leads to two empirical studies. The first study tests the effect of external representation (symbolic or spatial) on recall and comparisons from memory. Accuracy and response time at comparisons are used as dependent variables. Results indicate analog processing of magnitude in both conditions, and show that external representation affects performance at both recall and comparison, with symbolic external representation increasing recall and comparison accuracy, and spatial external representation increasing comparison speed. The second study tests the effects of spatiality, groundedness, and physicality in external representations, also on recall and comparisons from memory, using the same dependent variables. Results indicate analog processing in all conditions. Spatiality decreases recall accuracy but increases comparison speed. Groundedness and physicality show no effect. Results are consistent with grounded cognition's mental simulations hypothesis (Barsalou, 1999, 2008; Wilson, 2002) as well as Dehaene's (1997) view on numerical cognition, in which number sense is based on a continuous accumulator that does not directly process discrete numbers. Theoretical implications and practical applications are discussed.

Människor har olika förutsättningar för att hitta i sin köksmiljö beroende på vilket hälsotillstånd som ligger till grund för den enskilde individen. Det finns personer som har ett försämrat arbetsminne på grund av att de fått diagnosen lindrig Alzheimers sjukdom. Idag ger många köksluckor ingen information om innehållet, och i varje enskild individs kök finns det olika objekt beroende på vad som används. Denna studie handlar om att hitta olika former av åtgärder i köksmiljöer för att lättare kunna hitta, det finns en förhoppning av att problemen med att inte hitta kan minska. Att använda datainsamlingstekniker som litteratur, intervjuer, workshop och fokusgrupp ska det gå att få reda på vilka åtgärder som kan fungera. Resultaten visar på att det finns problem, och dessa är tänkt att lösa med olika åtgärdsförslag. De förslag som framkommit som kognitiva stöd är bland annat, öppna planlösningar, individuella bilder och transparanta luckor.