PhDRDV / Institute for Rural Development / As has been the case in Eastern and Southern Africa, Zimbabwe continues to regard smallholder dairy farming as a viable strategy for reducing poverty and malnutrition, especially in rural areas. Although the country has since the early 1980s been promoting smallholder dairy development, available literature does not provide a clear picture of the extent to which the specific livelihoods of rural communities in terms of human, social, physical and financial capitals, have improved. Nor is there knowledge on its negative contribution to the farmers’ livelihoods. Thus, this study was undertaken to critically analyse the contribution of smallholder dairy farming towards the livelihoods of rural households using the Nharira dairy scheme as a focal area. The DfiD sustainable livelihood framework was used to build this understanding. Apart from characterizing the farmers, the contribution of smallholder dairy farming towards social, physical, human, natural and financial capitals was investigated. A sequentially integrated mixed methods approach was used. This was divided into two phases, which were quantitative and qualitative in nature. Results from the first phase were used to inform and design the second study. A census of the 21 active smallholder dairy farmers in Nharira, and management committee of the Nharira dairy processing plant was conducted. A household-focused questionnaire, key informant interviews, participatory mapping, record review, Global Positioning System (GPS) locating and focus group discussions were used to collect data. A tape recorder, GPS locator and camera were used as assistive devices during data collection. Thematic content analysis was used to analyse qualitative data and interpret participatory maps. Livelihood capital indices were derived per household and used to complement descriptive statistics as part of quantitative data analysis. A social capital index was computed for each household using collective action, empowerment, groups and networks, and trust and solidarity as its components. Resource stocks and access were the building blocks of the natural capital index. Income, savings and investments, and access to funding were used to derive the household financial capital index. Contribution of dairy farming to productive equipment (such as cattle herd size) and basic infrastructure (such as quality of housing) were used to calculate the physical capital index. The index for human capital was obtained taking into account education, workforce and employment, enabling environment, and health and wellness. Equal weights were applied to the components when deriving the household livelihood indices because each one of them was considered to be substantially important for sustainable livelihoods. The quantitative data were stored and analysed using the International Business Machines (IBM) Statistical iii Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 24. Pearson correlation coefficients, means and standard deviations were calculated. Most of the farmers (65 %) were female. Approximately, 95 % of the women farmers were literate. Only 1 % of the farmers were youth (< 35 years old), a situation that threatened the sustainability of smallholder dairy farming. A daily smallholder dairy farming routine was derived using the focus group and participatory mapping results. This showcased the various daily activities and linked them with the household members actively involved. Smallholder dairy farming was found to be labour intensive. This might deter the farmers from diversifying into other livelihood strategies. Smallholder dairy farming was observed to have strengthened financial, human, natural, physical and social capitals in the local households. However, the respective indices of 0.59 and 0.52 for social and natural capitals, suggested that smallholder dairy farming impacted on these more than any other. Even though social capital was strong, further reinforcement through improved smallholder dairy farming activities was still vital because of its power of enhancing access to other forms of livelihood capitals. Human and physical capitals had the least index scores of 0.48 and 0.47, respectively. On average, the overall household livelihood capital index as a result of smallholder dairy farming was 0.51. One of the study respondents supported the positive contribution in the following way, ‘’Zvakanakira dairy hatingazipedzi. Tinotoda zuva rese” (There are many positive things that we attribute to our involvement in smallholder dairy farming. Narrating these demands considerable time). It was concluded that smallholder dairy farming significantly strengthened livelihood capitals of households involved in it. The results of the current study suggest that smallholder dairy farming is a viable option for improving household livelihood capitals. Thus, establishment of dairy farming schemes in rural areas should be promoted. However, the participation of youth in smallholder dairy farming as enterprise owners deserves attention because it threatens sustainability of the sector. An integrated multiple angle view encompassing technical, social, institutional, economic and organizational ideas of the impact of dairy farming as a livelihood strategy on household capital portfolio was provided. Moreover, application of the sustainable development framework to understanding the smallholder dairy farming context at household level was a novel way of understanding the local realities. Lastly, a set of variables that can be utilised to measure livelihood capitals of households involved in smallholder dairy farming-related activities was distilled.

Thesis (MPhil) Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The aim of this thesis was to investigate if the Conservation Agriculture (CA) project being implemented by Zimbabwe Farmers Alliance Trust, a non-governmental organisation, has improved the livelihoods of participant farmers. The research was done in the Mazowe, Chiweshe area where the organisation has been working with farmers with the key objectives of improving food security, livelihoods and stabilising production for the rural households. The research also looked at production trends and adoption levels of CA in the area. Yields were viewed as an important element since food security of rural communities is constantly under threat because of droughts. A key element of the thesis was primary research done in Mazowe Chiweshe Ward 4, where farmers were interviewed to get information on their experiences with the CA project. The study was informed by both primary and secondary data. A literature review was conducted to give a background on sustainability and multifaceted problems facing the globe; dubbed as a polycrisis. In order to assess the impact of the project, a framework was developed to define sustainability at global level and also at small-scale farmer level. The Sustainable Livelihoods Approach framework was used as the assessment tool that looks at capital assets as given by Conway and Chambers. The framework goes beyond financial gains and looks at capabilities, assets and activities required for a means of living. The CA project was thus assessed according to this framework as a yardstick for improvement of livelihoods in the area. Primary data was gathered from a sample of 25 farmers randomly selected from a total of 250 farmers involved in the project under ZFAT. The data was gathered through questionnaires, key informant interviews and participant observation techniques. With regards to the adoption of CA and its principles, the research suggested that farmers are eager to practice sustainable agriculture, but the scale of the project is too small to expand the project to more than the 250 farmers already in this project. It was also found that non-governmental organisations have played a significant role in introducing sustainable farming and that the government now need to step up efforts in supporting the projects. The study concluded that the CA project has improved livelihoods and is helping to stabilise production through sustainable land use and advanced farm management practices. The project has not only benefited the direct project beneficiaries or key participant farmers but also the environment as soil fertility is improving and biodiversity is being protected and enhanced. The programme has managed to create a mind-set in the community that; what we have today is a result of the way past generations operated and that we should feel challenged to leave behind a better-managed and flourishing environment for the next generation. This was concluded as a significant number of farmers in the interviews showed that they have changed perceptions since joining the project. The study concluded with recommendations for up-scaling of the project as well as the need for collaboration between relevant stakeholders. This would promote projects of similar nature that promote sustainability and sustainable livelihoods. However, the case study was specific to the Mazowe Chiweshe area and the findings presented in this thesis cannot be viewed as representative of the larger smallholder farming sector though it may provide relevant and positive pointers for similarly beneficial projects to be implemented elsewhere. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doel van hierdie tesis was om te bepaal of die bewaringslandbouprojek van die nie-regeringsorganisasie Zimbabwe Farmers Alliance Trust (ZFAT) die deelnemende boere se lewens verbeter het. Die navorsing is in die Mazowe Chiweshe-gebied onderneem, waar die organisasie boere bystaan om landelike huishoudings se voedselsekerheid en lewensgehalte te verbeter en landbouproduksie te stabiliseer. Die navorsing het ook aandag geskenk aan produksietendense en die vlakke van aanvaarding van bewaringslandbou in die streek. Opbrengste is as ’n belangrike element beskou, aangesien droogte voortdurend die landelike gemeenskappe se voedselsekerheid bedreig. ’n Kerndeel van die tesis was primêre navorsing wat in Wyk 4 van Mazowe Chiweshe onderneem is, in die vorm van onderhoude met boere om inligting in te samel oor hul ervarings van die bewaringslandbouprojek. Die studie is deur sowel primêre as sekondêre data gerig. ’n Literatuuroorsig is onderneem vir agtergrond oor volhoubaarheid, sowel as oor die veelsoortige probleme waarmee die wêreld te kampe het en wat as die ‘polikrisis’ bekend staan. Om die impak van die projek te beoordeel, is ’n raamwerk ontwikkel om volhoubaarheid op algemene sowel as kleinboervlak te omskryf. Conway en Chambers se ‘volhoubare bestaan’-benadering is as assesseringsinstrument gebruik om kapitaalbates te beoordeel. Die raamwerk strek egter verder as finansiële gewin en ondersoek ook die vermoëns, bates en aktiwiteite wat nodig is vir ’n volhoubare bestaan. Aan die hand van hierdie raamwerk is daar dus beoordeel tot watter mate die bewaringslandbouprojek plaaslike mense se lewens verbeter het. Primêre data is ingesamel uit ’n steekproef van 25 boere wat aan die ZFAT-projek deelneem. Die data is met behulp van vraelyste, onderhoude met sleutelinformante sowel as deelnemerwaarnemingstegnieke bekom. Wat die aanvaarding van bewaringslandbou en die beginsels daarvan betref, toon die navorsing dat boere gretig is om volhoubare landbou te bedryf, maar dat die skaal van die projek te klein is om meer as die bestaande 250 boere in die projek te help. Daar is ook bevind dat nie-regeringsorganisasies ’n beduidende rol gespeel het in die inwerkingstelling van volhoubare boerdery, maar dat die regering nou sy pogings ter ondersteuning van die projek moet versterk. Die studie kom tot die gevolgtrekking dat die bewaringslandbouprojek, deur volhoubare grondgebruik en gevorderde bestuurspraktyke, lewensgehalte verbeter en produksie gestabiliseer het. Nie net die deelnemende boere het by die projek baat gevind nie, maar ook die omgewing, aangesien grondvrugbaarheid verbeter en biodiversiteit beskerm en versterk word. Die studie sluit af met aanbevelings oor die uitbreiding van die projek, sowel as die behoefte aan samewerking met tersaaklike belanghebbendes. Dit sal ander soortgelyke projekte vir volhoubaarheid en ’n volhoubare bestaan bevorder. Tog het die gevallestudie bepaald op die Mazowe Chiweshe-omgewing betrekking gehad en kan die bevindinge in hierdie tesis nie as verteenwoordigend van die groter kleinboersektor beskou word nie. Nietemin kan dit relevante en positiewe wenke bied vir soortgelyke voordelige projekte wat elders in werking gestel word.

This thesis explores human-wildlife interactions under community managed game parks. The thesis consists of an introductory chapter, study location chapter and four self-contained studies based on different samples from created clusters surrounding Nyatana Game Park, which make up the rest of the thesis chapters. Chapter one presents an introductory overview of wildlife management in Zimbabwe, specifically looking at human-wildlife interactions under CAMPFIRE projects, welfare dynamics and conservation implications for the surrounding communities who share boundaries with community-managed game parks. The chapter concludes by highlighting the challenges facing community-based wildlife conservation in Zimbabwe as well as the key concepts that will be the subject of the rest of the thesis. Chapter two presents the study location; it highlights the road map to the study area, starting with the provincial location, and indicates the specific districts from which respondents were selected. A brief agro-ecological summary of the study area is also presented; it looks specifically at climate, vegetation and a demographic data of the study area. Chapter three: Can game parks be trusted as livelihood sources? To answer this topical question, Chapter three explores livelihood adaptation strategies for households who share boundaries with Nyatana Game Park. Most of the community managed game parks, under CAMPFIRE principles in Zimbabwe, were established with the primary objective of generating revenue for the surrounding communities; this was done in the hope of using positive returns from game farming to promote the conservation of wildlife. Has this materialised in practice? Descriptive results from this study seem to suggest otherwise, where mixed farming and gold panning were the major livelihood adaptation choices reported by most households. The revenue from game farming was reported to be too low and inconsistent, to such an extent that the majority of the community regarded it as risky and unreliable. A multinomial logistic regression model for correlates of adaptation choices indicated that access to credit, markets, and extension may be some of the current institutional constraints inhibiting households from accessing off-farm sources for their livelihoods. In addition, household size, gender and age may enhance the adaptive capacity of households to move out of risky crop faming into other off-farm portfolio diversifications. The study, therefore, suggests that game parks, according to the evidence uncovered by the study, may not be trusted as a reliable and sustainable livelihood source. If local communities who share boundaries with game parks do not view them as reliable and sustainable livelihood sources, as concluded in Chapter three, how can they (local communities) be trusted to conserve them? To assess their perceptions of game parks, Chapter four presents a multinomial logistic regression model for perceptions of society on game parks using the African elephant as a typical example. The results suggest that Problem Animal Control (PAC) perceptions, livestock predation and issues of low and poor revenue distribution may be some of the critical perceptions capable of influencing surrounding communities to negatively participate in the conservation of wildlife. The results further suggest that using wildlife proceeds to finance observable local common pool infrastructure may positively influence the surrounding communities to conserve wildlife. The chief conclusion regarding game parks, therefore, was that the surrounding communities were in favour of the obliteration pathway, although minimal conservation perceptions were also available. Given the negative conclusions regarding game parks, as suggested in Chapters three and four, citizens would then wonder if any meaningful hope for community managed game parks exists. Chapter five probes the buffer zone livelihood link under community managed game parks, using evidence from the Nyatana Game Park. The binary logistic regression model results, for buffer zone participation and resource extraction combinations by surrounding communities, suggest that resource extraction may be market driven rather than focussing on domestic consumption. The study therefore concludes that the buffer zone livelihood link as currently practiced, though potential, may fail to address the livelihood expectations of the sub-district producer communities. The study therefore calls for extreme caution whenever the buffer zone livelihood link is considered, because several institutional and design conflicts exist within this dynamic. In Chapter six, the study further probed the buffer zone income dynamics for the sub-district producer community. The results of descriptive statistics suggest that the contribution of buffer zone activities to household income may be significant with a positive correlation to household agricultural income for communities who reside inside or close to the park (primary sub-district producer community). Using the Gini decomposition approach and Lorenz curves, the study concluded that a buffer zone income may be capable of contributing to more equally distributed incomes for rural communities who share boundaries with game parks. With respect to the correlates of household income, the results suggest that household size and age may negatively influence income from buffer zone activities, while gender may have a positive effect. This was also true for education and Livestock Units (LUs) with respect to income from self employment; the former positively and the latter negatively related. The results further suggest that land size may also be positively significant in order to explain income from agriculture as well as total income. With regard to the distance from the buffer zone, the results suggest a negative influence with respect to the buffer zone, agriculture and total income. The implied message therefore suggests that buffer zones may provide active livelihood sources which are capable of financing rural household agriculture. The income equalizing effect which is portrayed may also further imply that, if correctly targeted and promoted, a buffer zone income could possibly address the current income inequality which is generic in rural areas. However, this potential may not be realized due to the current buffer zone design status (created for local secondary use as opposed to commercial primary use), restrictive policies and poor institutional support. With this dilemma facing community managed game parks (threats as summarised in Chapters three and four amid the potential hope summarized in Chapters five and six), Chapter 7 concludes the study by suggesting that the human-wildlife interaction model, though currently theoretical, may have significant practical potential in addressing the livelihoods of the surrounding communities as well as promoting the conservation of wildlife. This could be possible if available challenges that range from low revenue, insecure property rights, high human-elephant conflict and institutional design conflict for buffer zone utilization are corrected by means of the free market system. This would allow market forces to deliver on the expectations of the ―human-wildlife interactions model‖ – sustainable livelihoods for the former and intergenerational conservation for the latter.

Thesis (MDF)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This research study has examined the impact of contract farming on enhancing efficiencies with the agricultural value chain for smallholder tobacco farmers in Mashonaland Central Province in Zimbabwe. The major challenges facing smallholder farmers in Africa in general and Zimbabwe in particular relate to financial constraints, technical expertise and market access. Contract farming as a transactions-cost-focussed-model is considered more effectively responsive to those challenges than the pure market approach which insufficiently addresses the impact of information asymmetries, bounded rationality, uncertainty, governance challenges and infrastructure challenges, among others. It allows for closely monitored smallholder financing by agribusiness entities which reduces or eliminates the probability of loan default. Contract farming is seen as an important mechanism in transforming the fragmented, subsistence agriculture in rural Africa into high commercialised and viable business undertakings. In this study, extensive reference is made to literature on agriculture financing; empirical research data on smallholder productivity and loan recoverability is drawn and analysed using the quantitative research methodology. The analysis sought to test for relationships among a set of variables and in the process examined the impact of contract farming. A comparative analysis of national data on the contract and auction system of tobacco marketing was done with emphasis on production and sales volumes, crop quality, price stability and market access. The results from the quantitative analysis of farmer-level and country-level data indicated a strong correlation between smallholder farmer production, productivity and loan recoverability and contract farming value chain intervention mechanisms.

This study seeks to determine the impact of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) on livelihoods of smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe. The study was motivated by the fact that benefits of ICT development still need to be known among rural smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe. ICTs have been upheld as catalysts for the promotion of rural livelihoods the world over. The question that remains is whether ICTs in Zimbabwe promote livelihoods of smallholder farmers. Although the Government formulated the ICT policy in 2005, the benefits still need to be known among rural smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe. The challenges faced by smallholder farmers include limited access to ICTs, high costs in ICT services and lack of ICT infrastructural development in the country. The challenges hindered ICT benefits that are expected to accrue to smallholder farmers. This study is significant in the view that most studies on ICT have focused on the general roles of ICT on rural development without giving particular attention to smallholder farming that has a potential of reducing poverty and promoting food security. For a theoretical lens, the Sustainable Livelihood Approach was used with special attention to Chapman et al (2001)’s information wheel. Regarding methodological issues, the study followed a qualitative research methodology guided by a secondary analysis research design. Data were collected from published reports of government, reports from the Ministry of ICT, internet, journals, newspapers and periodicals. The study established that ICTs promote livelihoods of smallholder farmers through the dissemination of vital information for improvement of agricultural productivity. From the research findings, the study proposes four main recommendations. Firstly, strengthening of ICT policy for effective smallholder farmers. Secondly, the government to organise ICT awareness campaigns directed towards rural people especially smallholder farmers. Thirdly, up scaling ICT Infrastructural development .Finally, a large-scale ICTs and livelihoods research must be commissioned in the country.

Rural farmers in Zimbabwe have been grappling with various changes and challenges occurring in the country since the early 1990s. Amongst these, climate variability has emerged as one significant aspect. It has introduced new challenges for these farmers who are already facing various difficulties in maintaining their insecure livelihoods. Yet, current adaptation theories and inquiries have failed to sufficiently account for and analyse the capacity of these farmers to adequately respond to changing climatic conditions. In this respect, a number of studies have been heavily embedded in deterministic concepts that regard rural farmers as passive victims who play only a minor part in decisions and actions that affect their own livelihoods and well-being. Similarly, although some studies have acknowledged farmers’ capacity to adapt and build elements of resilience, they have not adequately shown how farmers interpret changes in climate and the structures, processes and conditions underpinning adaptation. Following that, my study uses a case study of a rural community in a semi-arid region of Mutoko district in eastern Zimbabwe and Margaret Archer’s sociological theory to understand and analyse how farmers problematise climate variability and respond to it. The study utilises a qualitative approach to divulge the subtleties on how rural people interpret processes of change and adapt to such changes. The thesis found that farmers are encountering increasingly unpredictable and unreliable rainfall patterns as well as shifting temperature conditions which are inducing labyrinthian livelihoods conundrums. However, these climatic shifts are not being experienced in a discrete manner hence farmers are also discontented with the obtaining socio-economic circumstances in the country. Simultaneously, whilst farmers in large part conceived changes in rainfall and temperature to be caused by natural shifts in climate, they also ascribed them to cultural and religious facets. Importantly, the thesis reveals considerable resourcefulness by farmers in the face of nascent changes in climate variability. Farmers have therefore constructed versatile coping and adaptive strategies. What is crucial to mention here is that climatic and non-climatic challenges are negotiated concurrently. Therein, farmers are adapting to climate variability and at the same time navigating difficult socio-economic landscapes. All the same, the process of adaptation is ostensibly not straightforward but complex. As it evolves, farmers find themselves facing numerous constraining structures and processes. Nonetheless, farmers in this study are able to circumvent the constraints presented to them and at the same time activate the corresponding enabling structures, processes and conditions.