Relationships and connections with our traditional, spiritual, cultural practices, and the physical landscapes of our traditional territories are inherent to our Kwagu’ł being. This thesis research explores how developing relationships with landscapes contributes to cultural identity. My research project focuses on using digital video to document an experiential journey of Kwagu’ł community members as they experience a Kwagu’ł origin site in their traditional territories of T’sax̱is (Fort Rupert, BC), a small remote village on northern Vancouver Island. I specifically examine how being in a particular place might influence their identification processes as they reflect on Kwagu’ł practices, values and beliefs. According to our Kwakwa̱ka̱’wakw nino’gad (knowledgeable ones), wellness balances and integrates the physical, emotional, mental and spiritual elements of our being. The disruption of these fundamental elements of wellness is a legacy of Indigenous people’s encounter with colonialism. These factors ultimately affect our behaviour, and therefore, our identity. In this film, titled “Identity Through A Journey With Our Ancestors”, I explore: 1) how an experiential journey to Kwagu’ł origin sites contributes to a Kwagu’ł person’s perception of who they are and where they come from; 2) how Kwagu’ł people develop a coevalness with their ancestors, their ancestral ontological practices, teachings and ideologies; and ask 3) how Kwagu’ł people should embody this knowledge so that it creates meaningful connections to Kwagu’ł identity in light of socioeconomic and cultural changes of our contemporary environment? This paper accompanies the film and elaborates on the deeper understanding of cultural identification practices of aboriginal people that stems from a discussion of origin sites and their meanings. K’waxalikala (tree of life) frames this inquiry, and it illustrates relationships and connections that are important to our life-long learning both on an individual and collective basis. / Graduate / mariehunt@cablerocket.com

Pregnant First Nations women who live on reserves in rural and remote regions of Canada are routinely evacuated to urban cities to await labour and birth; this is commonly referred to as Health Canada’s evacuation policy. I produced two stand alone papers to investigate this policy. In the first, I investigated the development and implementation of the Canadian government’s evacuation policy. Archival research showed that the evacuation policy began to take shape in 1892 and was founded on Canada’s goals to assimilate and civilize First Nations. My second paper employed First Nations feminist theory to understand why the evacuation policy does not result in good health, especially for First Nations women. Because the evacuation policy is incongruent with First Nations’ epistemologies, it compromises First Nations’ health. I offer policy recommendations to promote First Nations health in a way that is consistent with First Nations’ epistemologies and goals towards self-determination and self-governance.

Background: Food insecurity has been described as an urgent and pervasive public health issue for Aboriginal people (First Nations [FN], Métis, and Inuit) in Canada. However, national health surveys have generally excluded a large portion of the Aboriginal population (FN living on-reserve and Inuit), resulting in limited data on food insecurity in these individuals and communities. In addition, scales for measuring food insecurity have not been validated in Canadian Aboriginal populations. Food security challenges faced by Aboriginal people living in remote communities are unique and few studies have examined the perceptions of and coping strategies for food insecurity in this population. Objectives: The overall objective of this research was to explore various aspects of food insecurity (prevalence, perceptions, and coping strategies) in the remote, on-reserve First Nations community of Fort Albany, Ontario. This thesis consisted of five studies conducted in Fort Albany. The objectives for Study I were to quantitatively measure the prevalence of food insecurity using the Household Food Security Survey Module (HFSSM) and to use two qualitative interview questions to evaluate the relevance of the HFSSM. Study II used qualitative interview questions to examine the perceptions of and coping strategies for food insecurity. Studies III and IV investigated two programs in Fort Albany that had the potential to affect food security: the school snack program and a greenhouse project. Study III assessed the impact of the school snack program on student food intake. Study IV was a descriptive case study of the context and implementation of a community greenhouse project. Study V involved the development and formative evaluation of supplemental questions for the HFSSM intended to be relevant for measuring food security in First Nations households. Methods: One adult from each household in the community was invited to complete the 18-item HFSSM, demographic questions, and an interview with questions on the relevance of the HFSSM for First Nations food security and strategies used to cope with food insecurity. To evaluate the snack program, 24 hour diet recall data were collected using the Waterloo Web-based Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (WEB-Q) in November 2004 and December 2007 with grade six to 10 students attending Peetabeck Academy in Fort Albany. Food group consumption and nutrient intake of students participating in the school snack program were compared with students who chose not to participate. Five additional questions asked students about their participation, preferences, and impressions of the snack program. Data sources for the greenhouse project included semi-directed interviews with a purposive and snowball sample of community key informants, direct observations, written documentation, and photo-documentation. The case study was carried out over a period of 33 months; from early 2009 until October of 2011. The supplemental questions for the HFSSM were drafted based on themes that had emerged from the evaluation of the relevance of the HFSSM and relevant literature. Feedback on the importance, clarity, and cultural appropriateness of each proposed question was gathered from key informants (n=12) working on food security issues with Aboriginal groups, using an online survey. Results: For the HFSSM study, of 64 households (87% response), 70% were food insecure, 17% severely and 53% moderately. The prevalence of food insecurity in households with children was 76%. Among respondents from homes rated as having severe food insecurity, all (100%) reported worrying that food would run out; times when food didn’t last and there wasn’t money to buy more; and times when they couldn’t afford to eat balanced meals. When asked about the relevance of the HFSSM, the majority of respondents felt the HFSSM did not fully capture an accurate picture of food security for their situation. Aspects missing from the HFSSM included the high cost of market food and the incorporation of traditional food practices. For the coping strategies study, a thematic analysis of interviews (n=51) revealed that food sharing, especially with family, was regarded as one of the most significant ways to adapt to food shortages. The majority of participants reported consuming traditional food (wild meats) and suggested that hunting, preserving and storing traditional food has remained very important. However, numerous barriers to traditional food acquisition were mentioned. Other coping strategies included dietary change, rationing and changing food purchasing patterns. In order to improve access to healthy foods, improving income and food affordability, building community capacity and engagement, and community-level initiatives were suggested. Findings from the school snack program study showed that students participating in the snack program had significantly higher intakes from specific food groups and related nutrients compared to those who did not participate. With the exception of Meat and Alternatives in 2004, there was a trend for a higher percentage of students to meet dietary recommendations if they participated in the snack program. Students indicated that the three things they liked most about the school snack program were the juice, that the program kept them from feeling hungry at school, and that they got a snack at school every day. Students indicated that the snack program helped them to eat healthier by motivating them, eating more fruit, and making better dietary choices. Qualitative analysis of the greenhouse case study data generated gardening related themes: seasons, fertile ground, sustainability, gardeners, ownership, participant growth, and sunshine. Amongst the gardeners, local champions were critical to project success. Positive outcomes included the involvement of many community members, a host of related activities being carried out, and that the greenhouse had introduced an opportunity to gain knowledge about growing plants in a northern greenhouse setting. For the study on measuring food security in FN households, valuable feedback was provided by key informants (n=12) on clarifying the wording of the questions as well as providing perspectives on how the questions may or may not be applicable to different Aboriginal populations. A revised list of questions was created that incorporated the feedback from key informants. Conclusions: A very high prevalence of household food insecurity was reported in this community with the prevalence especially high in households with children. On-reserve remote FN communities may be more susceptible to food insecurity than off-reserve Aboriginal populations. Findings point to the continued importance of traditional food acquisition and food sharing, as well as community solutions for food systems change. These data highlight that traditional and store-bought food are both part of the strategies and solutions participants suggested for coping with food insecurity. Given the positive impact of the school snack program on the food and nutrient intake of student participants, it is clear that school snack programs can be an important venue to address the nutritional vulnerability of FN youth living in remote communities. Community and school greenhouse projects require local champions to be successful and foster community participation and ownership. Implementing a greenhouse project can engage community members, including children, and provide a great learning opportunity for gardeners in a remote, northern community. Finally, input from community participants and experts suggest additional questions that may add relevance to food security questionnaires for FN populations. Data highlight the urgency for public health policies and initiatives that promote food security for vulnerable FN populations. Findings can be used to inform assessment and program planning activities and to advocate for policies at the local, provincial and federal levels to strengthen community food security.

In Canada, accessible and culturally relevant population health data for urban First Nations, Métis and Inuit people are almost non-existent. There is a need for Aboriginal community centric research and data systems, specifically in the area of mental health and substance misuse. The goal of this research was to address these knowledge gaps. The three linked studies being presented were nested in the Our Health Counts (OHC) project, a multi-partnership study aimed at developing a baseline population health database for urban Aboriginal people living in Ontario. In the first study, concept mapping was used to engage urban Aboriginal stakeholders from three culturally diverse communities in identifying health priorities. After completing brainstorming, sorting and rating, and map interpretation sessions, three unique community specific maps emerged. Map clusters and their ratings reflected First Nations, Inuit, and Métis understandings of health. Concept mapping encouraged community participation and informed the development of three health assessment surveys. The second study generated a representative sample of First Nations adults and children living in Hamilton, Ontario by utilizing Respondent Driven Sampling (RDS), a modified chain-referral sampling approach. Population estimates were generated for household and personal income, mobility, over-crowding and food availability. Results revealed striking disparities in social determinants of health between First Nations and the general population. The third study used the RDS generated sample to examine mental health and substance misuse among First Nations adults living in Hamilton. Prevalence estimates were generated for diagnosis and treatment of a mental illness, depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), suicide, alcohol and substance misuse, and access to emotional supports. Findings indicated that First Nations adults living in Hamilton experience a disproportionate burden of mental health and substance misuse challenges. The three linked studies make innovative contributions to Aboriginal health research. Results clearly exemplify the effective application of community-based research methods that are grounded in local knowledge and built on existing community strengths and capacities. Representative population health data for urban First Nations will contribute to current deficiencies in health information; will shape policy and programming priorities as well as future research directions, particularly with respect to health and social disparities among this population.

The disproportionate burden of disease in the Aboriginal population in Canada has become so great that it is now being referred to as a health ‘crisis’. Evidence suggests that the answer to these ills lies not in the western biomedical model of heath care, but within the Aboriginal traditions of self-determination and holism (RCAP, 1996; O’Neil, Lemckuk-Favel, Allard & Postl, 1999; Romanow, 2002; CIHI, 2004; Maar, 2004; First Nations & Inuit Regional Health Survey, 2004). To this end, First Nations communities have been negotiating with the federal government and transferring responsibility for their community-based health services since 1986, despite the limitations of the federal Health Transfer Policy (Gregory, Russell, Hurd, Tyance & Sloan, 1992; Lavoie, et al, 2005; RCAP, Vol 3, Chp 3, 1996; Speck, 1989). These self-determination initiatives in health attempt to improve the health status of community members. Thus, determining an approach to health service delivery that contributes to positive health outcomes is of particular significance. Examining Island Lake’s evolving model of health service delivery indicates the success of the intergovernmental, interdepartmental, and intersectoral partnership approach they have taken; as evidenced by the Regional Renal Health Program, with dialysis treatment services, that has been established, perhaps for the first time in the country, in a remote First Nations community without existing hospital services. There remains work to be done in creating a holistic system of health service delivery that reflects their unique worldview within a context of health promotion and self-determination; however, their accomplishments to date, established processes, willingness to put their dreams into action and build what has not been built before demonstrate a potential to improve community health and well-being.

The identities of mixed Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal descendents in British Columbia is as varied as it is complex. In this paper I examine what caused some people of mixed Native and non-Native ancestry not to identify as Aboriginal while others did. The point of fracture for those who identify with their Aboriginal origins and those who do not can be traced to a specific time in our history. More importantly, specific variables were instrumental in causing that divergence of identity, spurred by a pervasive social stigma in colonial society. For many of mixed ancestry, the disassociation from their Aboriginal identity led to generations of silence and denial and eventually to a 'complete disappearance of race'. It was a deliberate breeding out of cultural identity through assimilative ideology and actions in order to conform to European norms. Determining what factors caused this divergence of identity for mixed-descendents entails considering why many Aboriginal women married non-Native partners in B.C. during the mid-19th century, how intermarriage affected identity formation for offspring, and what the multi-generational effects have been on the identities of mixed descendents. Today, this leaves a dilemma for those in-between who are eligible for status, and for those who are not but who choose to reconnect with, acknowledge and learn more of their ancestry. Both assertions of First Nations identity and choices to reconnect with a First Nations heritage while maintaining a non-Native identity, challenge the assumed inevitability of assimilation, and the federal government's continuing reluctance to understand the cultural significance of identification as 'Indian'.

A cross-sectional study of Manitoba TB Registry data was conducted using a set of performance measures based on the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention TB Performance Objectives and Targets framework. The study investigated all cases of TB diagnosed in Manitoba during the period of 2008 to 2010 (inclusive), and their contacts. Seven performance measures (PMs) were analyzed: treatment completion/cure, early diagnosis, HIV testing/reporting, paediatric cases, re-treatment cases, contact elicitation, and contact assessment. Ethnic-origin, age, sex, geographic, and treatment history groups were compared on these PMs through log-binomial and robust Poisson regression analyses, implemented through a generalized estimating equations (GEE) modelling approach. An updated epidemiological profile is provided, along with a baseline of performance in TB prevention, diagnosis, and care in Manitoba. Significant differences were found between Manitoba sub-populations in the PMs. The PM framework developed in this study provided valuable information for TB program planning and evaluation. / February 2016

In 1951 British Columbia public schools opened their doors to First Nations children furthering federal government goals of assimilation. First Nations learners entered provincial public schools as a "billable commodity" while newcomers flooded British Columbia seeking opportunities in a province rich in natural resources in forests, mines, fisheries and land. Sadly the public schools' curricula contained colonization history but no curriculum to describe First Nations existence and history. Locally, there was no recognition of the existence of the Coast Salish people as distinct and prosperous Saltwater People. The indifference to the history of indigenous peoples left newcomers with gaps in their understanding of First Peoples Hostilities and resentments grew as immigration multiplied the numbers and pressure of homesteaders encroaching on traditional indigenous homelands paired with increasing intrusion and restrictions under the Indian Act and shrinking of traditional territories to small contained reserves. / Graduate

The purpose of this thesis is to put forth a summary of principles that reflect the local knowledge of the people within the Saulteau First Nations Community. This summary of principles is a tool of compiled oral knowledge that reflects community values and mind-sets and which might offer tangible solutions to guide community protocols, program development or to possibly frame future policies. 11 Principles are the highlighted expressions or codes of conduct that express cultural meaning to a people. Principles help make sense of and instill ethics or morals within a community. These cultural belief systems continue to be practiced through hunting techniques and patterns and by exercises based on beliefs that reveal a value system originating in the spiritual relationship with the natural life forms, animals, plants and spirits. Within the practical motions lie the spoken and unspoken codes, principles, values and beliefs of the people. This allows the community to determine its values and articulate important teachings that give expression to notions of cultural identity. The summary of constructed principles of the Saulteau First Nations Community is as follows: 1. wahkowtowin 2. kiyam 3. kisiwatsoon 4. matinawewin 5. nisohkamakewin 6. ka nisohkamowatwan kitotfmak 7. nihiyew tapsinowin "We are all relatives" (Art Napoleon). To let go is a necessary concept in the process of healing. Compassion is a necessary quality that instills harmony connecting the community. An offering of thanks in honor of the provisions of life is necessary to ensure prosperity from the Creator. Somebody that helps is vital for community survival. "You are a servant to the people" (Art Napoleon). "We have to go back to our Indian laws and that is when we will have harmony amongst each other" (Stewart Cameron). The principles link local forms of knowledge necessary that may guide imposed policies and structures. Further research will be beneficial to the people and should also reflect the range of cultures that have formed the community's ancestry within the present day Saulteau First Nations Community. / Graduate

The identities of mixed Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal descendents in British Columbia is as varied as it is complex. In this paper I examine what caused some people of mixed Native and non-Native ancestry not to identify as Aboriginal while others did. The point of fracture for those who identify with their Aboriginal origins and those who do not can be traced to a specific time in our history. More importantly, specific variables were instrumental in causing that divergence of identity, spurred by a pervasive social stigma in colonial society. For many of mixed ancestry, the disassociation from their Aboriginal identity led to generations of silence and denial and eventually to a 'complete disappearance of race'. It was a deliberate breeding out of cultural identity through assimilative ideology and actions in order to conform to European norms. Determining what factors caused this divergence of identity for mixed-descendents entails considering why many Aboriginal women married non-Native partners in B.C. during the mid-19th century, how intermarriage affected identity formation for offspring, and what the multi-generational effects have been on the identities of mixed descendents. Today, this leaves a dilemma for those in-between who are eligible for status, and for those who are not but who choose to reconnect with, acknowledge and learn more of their ancestry. Both assertions of First Nations identity and choices to reconnect with a First Nations heritage while maintaining a non-Native identity, challenge the assumed inevitability of assimilation, and the federal government's continuing reluctance to understand the cultural significance of identification as 'Indian'. / Arts, Faculty of / Anthropology, Department of / Graduate