Populations where three different lethals are segregating as alleles have been analysed for the conditions of equilibrium and for the trends during elimination of one allele. Early and late selection as well as sexdependent and sexindependent selection has been taken into consideration.Cage populations of Drosophila melanogaster with different fourth chromosome lethals have been followed and compared to the theoretical model. When two marker chromosomes (ciDpol and spaCat) and one out of four recessive lethal chromosomes l(4)5, 1(4)8, 1(4)10 or l(4)14 were used, the same marker chromosome (ciDpol) became extinct in all populations. Early and late selective values which were obtained directly from the populations were compared to estimates of fitness components obtained in specially designed experiments of viability, developmental rate, mating ability and fecundity. When two out of the four recessive lethals and the marker chromosome, spaCat , were combined in new populations, all populations attained equilibrium withôut extinction. A correlation was found between the time of death of the lethal homozygotes and the equilibrium genotype frequencies. Overall selective values at equilibrium were estimated. / digitalisering@umu

Orientador: Louis Bernard Klaczko / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Biologia / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-15T14:49:11Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Martins_AyanadeBrito_M.pdf: 905842 bytes, checksum: 4ad0bbbbe049319318ad9fdd6e725632 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010 / Resumo: Elementos citoplasmáticos egoístas (ECEs) sao bactérias que apresentam transmissão predominantemente vertical e se mantém na população hospedeira através do aumento relativo da produção de fêmeas infectadas. Nesses casos a seleção natural favorece mecanismos de manipulação da reprodução do hospedeiro (feminização, partenogênese, mortalidade precoce de machos e incompatibilidade citoplasmática) e, por isso, os ECEs sao denominados parasitas reprodutivos. A mortalidade precoce de machos (em inglês early male-killing) refere-se a morte da prole masculina devida a presença de um ECE e seus agentes causadores sao denominados agentes androcidas. No caso de indutores de feminizarão, partenogênese e incompatibilidade citoplasmática, o próprio mecanismo de manipulação resulta no aumento relativo na produção de fêmeas infectadas, o que pode explicar a manutencao desses elementos na população hospedeira. Entretanto, para agentes androcidas, o mecanismo de manipulação não resulta automaticamente no aumento da produção de fêmeas infectadas. Uma das hipóteses para explicar a manutencao de agentes androcidas e a realocação de recursos: a morte precoce dos machos libera recursos preferencialmente para as suas irmãs. Dado que não sao conhecidos os mecanismos que explicam a manutencao de agentes androcidas em espécies de Drosophila, este mestrado teve como objetivos estimar a prevalência de agentes androcidas em populações de D. melanogaster e analisar fatores que podem estar envolvidos com a manutencao desses agentes nessas populações: (i) presença de outros organismos transmitidos verticalmente; (ii) evidencias de realocação de recursos em populações naturais e em linhagens no laboratório; e (iii) efeitos em diferentes componentes do valor adaptativo. A prevalência do fenótipo androcida em populações de D. melanogaster, estimada pela contagem de proles, variou entre próxima a 0 e 17,7% e esteve fortemente associada a presença de Spiroplasma, detectada por PCR. As razoes sexuais das proles de fêmeas infectadas foram heterogêneas, o que sugere variação na expressão do fenótipo androcida. Não foi detectada associação entre o agente androcida Spiroplasma e Wolbachia, outro ECE que coinfecta populações de D. melanogaster. Foram encontradas evidencias consistentes com a hipótese de realocação de recursos em D. melanogaster: (i) em experimentos no laboratório, fêmeas infectadas por agente androcida apresentaram menor tempo de desenvolvimento do que fêmeas não infectadas; (ii) e fêmeas do campo infectadas produziram mais filhas em um repique de quatro dias no laboratório. Não houve diferença na produção de filhas entre fêmeas infectadas e não infectadas de uma estirpe padrão do laboratório. E possível que o efeito de Spiroplasma em populações naturais esteja associado a composição genética da população hospedeira. / Abstract: Selfish cytoplasmic elements (SCEs) are maternally inherited bacteria which increase the net production of infected females. Due to a genetic conflict between the SCE and the host genomes, different mechanisms of reproductive manipulation (feminization, parthenogenesis, male-killing and cytoplasmic incompatibility) are favored through natural selection. For feminization, parthenogenesis and cytoplasmic incompatibility, the reproductive manipulation by itself results in a greater net production of daughters by the infected females, which may explain the persistence of these elements in the host population. However, this net difference does not hold for male-killer infected and uninfected females. One of the mechanisms that has been proposed to explain the adaptiveness of the male-killing trait is the resource reallocation from dead males to female hosts. Considering that it is still unclear how male-killers persist in Drosophila populations, the present study aimed to assess the male-killer prevalence in D. melanogaster populations and to analyze different factors which may explain their persistence in these population: (i) interaction with other vertically transmitted elements; (ii) evidence supporting the resource release hypothesis in natural populations and in laboratory strains; and (iii) direct fitness effects. The incidence of the male-killing phenotype in D. melanogaster, obtained counting the laboratory raised broods of collected females, ranged from close to 0 to 17.7% and was strongly associated with Spiroplasma infection, assessed by PCR. The sex ratio of female biased trains had a bimodal distribution which suggests variation in the expression of the male-killing phenotype. No evidence of positive or negative interaction between male-killing Spiroplasma and Wolbachia (other SCE coinfecting D. melanogaster) infections was found. We found evidence consistent with the resource reallocation hypothesis in D. melanogaster: (i) infected females had a shorter generation time in laboratory experiments; (ii) and field females produced more daughters in their first brood in the laboratory. No difference in number of daughter was detected between infected and uninfected females in an experiment using flies from a standard laboratory strain. The effect of male-killing Spiroplasma in natural populations may be conditioned to the host's genetic background. / Mestrado / Genetica Animal e Evolução / Mestre em Genética e Biologia Molecular

The history of association soccer dates back to the 1800's, and all indications are that prospects for the female athlete was scarce in all sports. The researcher has arranged an environment where young females can train with males in a soccer setting that has all the necessary elements for the athletes to learn, improve and compete with their own gender as well as opposite gender. The female group has been noticeable underachievers in this sport and is not aware of their potential. The research methodology is ethnographic in nature and study could easily be related to a traditional way to learn and develop in this sport. The method stresses the importance of reproducing procedures that were taught to the researcher. The employment of this method was to provide motivation and additional teaching resources to assist and enhance development of the research participant's potential. This was an ethnographic endeavor that accumulated several sources of data on 13 elite male and female athletes. Based on the data collected interpretations were made regarding their perceptions of the opposite gender. Ethnography was combined with descriptive statistics and employed to elicit and compile the data in the soccer specific testing components and the interviews. Merging techniques of observation (participant observation), field notes, video analysis, individual and group interviews were the sources of rich information for the researcher. This was a practical approach to bring out or discover any overt or covert trends, and to determine what possible barriers to learning would limit and reduce participation in the sport of soccer. The theoretical nature of the research, formal sociology is very much related to observational methods, choosing to gather data in a controlled and organized approach. The researcher's decision to tape the interview process and his preference to videotape events would thereby collect a complete and accurate account of the training progression subject matter. The results in the soccer specific testing indicated that the males were generally faster on sprint runs and had more endurance on the distance runs. However, a few of the females did better some of the males' scores in the aerobic and anaerobic events. The technical and tactical data indicated a slight improvement for the females when comparing pre and posttest results. Once more, the males were more advanced than the females. The psychological data showed the females progressed on the posttest scores. However, there was no overall male domination on the 20 categories. There are different areas on the inventory where females scored higher and other areas where the males would top the females. The interviews provided some enlightening information that confirmed aspects of male domination exist in sport and the feminist's role in sport as bringing attention to many gender issues, the positive and negative aspects of education and sport, the goals and motivation to participate in sport. Finally, the contrasting viewpoints between the American adolescent in this study and the English adolescent in Flintoff's (1993) dissertation and Flintoff and Scraton's (2001) study on physical education and gender issues. The most important finding was that learning had occurred in the training milieu. Learning was accomplished through the males' ability to facilitate the dynamics of attention and discipline required throughout the training sessions that were offered. The soccer specific test results indicated a much more motivated female group and the females' spring season was very successful; the team went undefeated in all competitions. The males in the study began to shed the superior attitude to one of more respect and tolerance of their female counterparts. The female differs emotionally from the male as the interview data illustrated and the co-education environment was both positive and productive, but there are limits to the inclusion of the female gender in the male training sessions. More planning would be necessary to assure that both groups develop. The study not only provided training and testing, but also made the participants more aware of many gender issues and how the research attempted to bridge the gap in sport between the sexes. If adopted, the psychological data could mean major benefits for the player who wants to know exactly what their strengths and weaknesses are; and when actions of strength are required and the capacity to work on weaknesses.

Frugivorous insects, specialised herbivores that consume fruit and seeds, are considered detrimental to host plant fitness. Their direct link to genetic fitness via consumption of plant reproductive tissue, and their negative socioeconomic association with agriculture exacerbates their harmful status. However, empirical testing of insect frugivore effects on host plants, and ecological research on the contribution of insect frugivores to multitrophic frugivory systems, is lacking. In the current study, direct effects of a non-mutualistic, insect frugivore/host plant system were tested and results showed variable effects. Beneficial, detrimental, but predominantly neutral effects on germination and seed production were observed between the Queensland fruit fly (Bactrocera tryoni) and tomato and capsicum plants. Significant effects on seed production were unexpected because infestation occurs after seed set. It was also found that eggplant, although a recorded host of B. tryoni, is inconsistent in its ability to sustain B. tryoni larvae through to its final instar. These results confirmed a simplification and presumption associated with insect frugivore (specifically fruit fly)/host plant interactions. Larval movement, infestation-induced fruit decay, pulp removal and germination were then investigated. For all hosts (tomato, apple and paw paw), treatments infested by B. tryoni decayed significantly quicker and to a greater extent than uninfested treatments, with obvious but variable changes to the texture and appearance. The movement of B. tryoni larvae, pattern of infestation-induced decay and pulp removal was unique and host dependent for all hosts. Only seeds from infested tomato were shown to germinate during the experiment. This indicated that host fruit characteristics are responsible, in part, for variable direct effects on host plant fitness by insect frugivores. Variable direct effects between insect frugivores and host plants, combined with the more rapid decay of infested fruits is likely to have implications for seed dispersal and seed predation by a third trophic level. The characteristics of fruit that are changed by infestation by an insect frugivore were then tested for their effect on a vertebrate frugivore, to illustrate the importance of recognising multitrophic interactions and indirect effects in frugivory. Specifically, seed predating rodents were incorporated into the study and their response to infested and uninfested fruits were recorded, as well as their reaction to the changes in fruit caused by insect frugivores (i.e. texture, smell, larvae presence and sound). Apple and pear infested with B. tryoni larvae were found to attract rodents, while infested tomato and paw paw had a neutral effect on the native rats. This differed from the predominant finding in the literature, which was a deterrent effect on avian seed dispersers. Vertebrate response to fruit infested with insect frugivores therefore, is variable. Assessing the indirect effect of insect frugivores on host plant fitness by attracting or deterring another trophic level requires knowledge of the direct effect between the introduced trophic level and the host plant. For example, the attraction of a seed predator may be as detrimental to host plant fitness as the deterrence of a seed disperser. This illustrates the complexity associated with assessing insect frugivore effects on host plant fitness. Results also indicated that differences in pulp texture, caused by infestation, have a significant effect on rodent preference for infested or uninfested treatments. Pulp texture is likely to effect rodent foraging efficiency, whereas the presence of B. tryoni larvae was observed to be inconsequential to rodent response to fruits. For rodents, and indeed any trophic level motivated by foraging efficiency, this finding raises the issue that for long lived fruiting plants, outside factors such as food abundance and competition for food, may cause a variable response to fruits infested by insect frugivores. From these investigations it has become apparent that insect frugivores are not consistently harmful to host plant fitness, as suggested by their negative stigma, but are likely to contribute variable effects, directly and indirectly, on multiple components of plant fitness and multitrophic frugivory systems.

L’adaptation des individus à un environnement dépend d’une combinaison de caractères adaptatifs, les traits d’histoire de vie, qui impactent la valeur sélective. Pour comprendre comment les organismes s’adaptent à leur environnement, on peut étudier quelles sont les traits composants la valeur sélective et comment ils dépendent de l’environnement biotique et abiotique. Au cours de cette thèse, je me suis intéressé aux composantes de la valeur sélective dans un environnement saisonnier et à ses conséquences sur la dynamique évolutive des traits quantitatifs.Pour cela, j’ai utilisé une approche de modélisation mathématique d’une évolution expérimentale de l’espèce modèle Saccharomyces cerevisiae en cultures successives en batch. La levure de boulanger S. cerevisiae ici étudiée présente un cycle de vie respiro-fermentaire : en présence de glucose, elle le consomme par fermentation tout en produisant de l’éthanol, qui sera consommé dans un deuxième temps par respiration. Les souches de levures évoluent au cours de cycles successifs de fermentation-respiration. A intervalles de temps réguliers, des cellules sont transférées dans un nouveau milieu contenant du glucose où elles effectuent un nouveau cycle. J’ai développé un modèle mathématique d’équations différentielles pour étudier quels sont les traits sélectionnés dans les différentes saisons dans ce dispositif expérimental et comment l’environnement abiotique, l’environnement biotique et les relations entre les traits, impactent leur évolution.Dans un premier temps, j’ai développé et paramétré un modèle d’équations différentielles décrivant la dynamique d’une population multi-souches au cours d’un batch (chapitre 1). J’ai ensuite proposé une décomposition de la valeur sélective et étudié quels traits sont sous sélection, et comment les pressions de sélection changent avec la composition de la population (chapitre 2). Deux types de traits sélectionnés ont pu être mis en évidence : les traits d’histoire de vie, liés au taux de croissance et à la mortalité, et les traits de transition, qui correspondent à la façon dont les souches réagissent aux changements de l’environnement. J’ai également montré que l’importance de chacune des composantes de la valeur sélective est lié à ces traits et à des traits non sélectionnés, via la longueur des différentes saisons. Au cours de l’évolution, ces composantes sont modifiées ce qui modifie la force de la sélection sur chaque trait. Ce phénomène de boucles de rétroaction éco-évolutives permet de mieux comprendre pourquoi la valeur sélective est fréquence-dépendante.Dans un second temps, j’ai utilisé des simulations d’un modèle de dynamique adaptative pour montrer que l’existence d’un trade-off entre deux traits dans la population ancêtre pouvaient entraîner l’émergence d’autres relations entre un trait sélectionné et un trait non-sélectionné au cours de l’évolution (chapitre 3).Enfin, pour mettre en regard les prédictions issues de modèles théoriques et des observations expérimentales, j’ai analysé deux jeux de données à travers le prisme de mon modèle mathématique (chapitre 4). Le premier jeu de données concerne le phénotypage de souches évoluées en batch successifs et leurs ancêtres. L’estimation des paramètres du modèle pour chacune des souches du jeu de données et leur analyse montrent que les traits liés à l’éthanol, sa consommation et sa production ont été principalement sélectionnés. Le second jeu de données, obtenu à partir de compétitions entre plusieurs couples de souches aillant des traits d’histoire de vie contrastés, a permis de mettre en évidence des différences de valeur sélective entre souches et de les relier avec des différences de traits phénotypiques, en cohérence avec les prédictions théoriques. / Adaptation of species to their environment involves combinations of traits, and in particular life history traits, that influence an organism's selective value. To understand the complexity of adaptation, it is appropriate to decipher the contributions of traits to fitness in the presence of different biotic and abiotic environments. In this thesis, I have investigated fitness components when the environment is seasonal, revealing how such components drive the evolutionary dynamics of quantitative traits.My work is based on the mathematical modeling of experimental evolutions in successive batch cultures of Saccharomyces cerevisiae (baker's yeast). The life cycle of this yeast species is of the respiration-fermentation type: (i) in the presence of glucose, it grows by fermentation, transforming glucose into ethanol; (ii) once glucose has been consumed, it grows by respiration, consuming this time ethanol. This sequence corresponds to the two « seasons » in a batch culture and leads to a cycle of successive batches if cells are periodically transferred into fresh medium. By using differential equations for the time courses, my thesis work shows how growth dynamics and environmental features (abiotic or biotic) generate selection pressures on the different traits during these successive seasons, thereby determining evolutionary trajectories.To describe batch dynamics, I first developed and calibrated a set of differential equations describing the growth dynamics of a population of yeast cells throughout a batch, allowing for one or multiple strains to be present (Chapter 1). Based on this model where cells divide without changing genotype, I then showed that a strain's fitness can be understood in terms of just a few components that are easily specified mathematically. I was then able to determine which traits were under selection and how the corresponding selection pressures were affected by the abundances of each strain in the yeast population (Chapter 2). Selected traits were found to be of two types: life history traits associated with growth and mortality rates, and “transition” traits that correspond to the way a strain reacts to environmental change. I also showed that the contributions of the different fitness components are tied to both selected and non-selected traits via the lengths of seasons. Thus, during population dynamics arising across successive batches, these components change, modifying the selection pressure on each trait. One therefore has a feedback loop, revealing why fitness is frequency-dependent in this system.Next, using the fitness decomposition, I studied adaptive dynamics in successive batch cultures. In such a framework where genotypic changes were allowed, and assuming that there was a trade-off between two traits, I showed that adaptive evolutionary dynamics could lead to the emergence of new relations between selected and non-selected traits (Chapter 3).Furthermore, in order to compare my theoretical predictions to experimental results, I used mathematical and statistical models to analyze two datasets (Chapter 4). The first dataset provides trait measurements in “evolved” strains, i.e., strains obtained after evolution across successive batches, as well as of those same traits in the “ancestral” strains at the origin of the experimental evolution. Parameters inference for the different strains showed that selection had operated mainly on ethanol-related traits (production and consumption). A second dataset was obtained from batch experiments putting strains in competition with one another; the analysis showed that my theoretical modeling well predicted the roles of the different traits for determining the relative fitness of the strains.