Antropologia Forense é a aplicação da ciência da Antropologia Física e osteologia humana em casos criminais onde os restos da vítima estão em fase avançada de decomposição. Devido ao grande fluxo migratório descrito no histórico do Brasil, a população brasileira possui características físicas muito heterogêneas quando comparadas com a população escocesa, uma vez que a imigração mais significativa foi proveniente de outras regiões do próprio Reino Unido. O presente estudo teve como objetivo comparar as variações craniométricas de duas populações (brasileira e escocesa), e avaliar a confiabilidade do método para determinação do sexo nas duas populações, com finalidade forense. A amostra total foi composta por 200 crânios com mandíbulas, sendo que a amostra brasileira foi constituída por 100 crânios completos e a amostra escocesa por 100 crânios e 36 mandíbulas, ambas amostras documentadas. Foram realizadas 72 mensurações sendo 51 cranianas e 21 mandibulares. Os resultados demonstraram que a amostra escocesa apresentou média maior comparada com a amostra brasileira em 54 variáveis do universo de 72 medidas. Trinta e três mensurações cranianas apresentaram diferença significativa entre as duas amostras e dentre as 21 medidas mandibulares analisadas, 05 apresentaram variação superior a 20%, 09 entre 10% e 20%, 07 inferior a 10%. As medidas que apresentaram maior dimorfismo sexual para as duas amostras foram a largura bizigomática (apresentando 73% de acerto para a amostra brasileira e 77% para a amostra escocesa), largura bigoníaca (79% e 83,30%) comprimento Porion-Mastoidale lado esquerdo (76% e 75%) e a altura do corpo mandibular lado esquerdo (67% e 80,60%). A análise discriminante multivariada demonstrou resultados satisfatórios para amostra brasileira com porcentagem de acerto variando entre 76-90% e na amostra escocesa 81-86,6%. Através da análise da curva ROC foram desenvolvidas 04 tabelas de referência sendo 01 para medidas cranianas brasileiras, 01 medida para mandibulares brasileiras, 01 tabela para medidas cranianas escocesas e 01 para medidas mandibulares escocesas. O presente estudo demonstrou que existem diferenças entre as duas amostras estudadas, porém ainda falta elucidar a causa responsável, já que se trata de uma grandeza multifatorial. A metodologia quantitativa analisada demonstrou-se precisa para analisar dimorfismo sexual nas duas amostras. / Forensic anthropology is the application of the physical anthropology science and human osteology in criminal cases where the victim\'s remains are in an advanced stage of decomposition. Due to migration Brazilian population is very diverse, comprising many races and ethnic groups, therefore it is much more varied than the Scottish population, which tends to be more homogenous once there was significant immigration to Scotland from the rest of the United Kingdom. The present study aimed to compare the craniometric variations of two populations (Brazilian and Scottish), and analyze the reliability of sex determination in the two populations for forensic purpose. The total sample was comprised of 200 skulls and 136 mandibles, the Brazilian sample consisted of 100 complete skulls and the Scottish sample was composed of 100 skulls and 36 mandibles, both of which are documented samples. The measure\'s protocol comprised 72 measurements, being 51 cranial and 21 mandibular. The results showed that the Scottish sample had a larger mean compared to the Brazilian sample in 54 variables of the 72 measures. Among the cranial measurements analyzed, 33 variables showed a significant difference between the two samples and among the 21 mandibular measurements considered, 05 presented a variation greater than 20%, 09 between 10% and 20%, 07 lower than 10%. The most dimorphic measurements for both samples were the bizigomatic width (73% of accuracy for the Brazilian sample and 77% for the Scottish sample), the bigoniac width (79% and 83,30%), the Porion-Mastoidale length (76% and 75%), and the left side mandibular body height (67 and 80,60%). The multivariate discriminant analysis showed satisfactory results for the Brazilian sample with a percentage of accuracy varying between 76-90% and in the Scottish sample 81-86.6%. Through the analysis of the ROC curve, four reference tables were developed: 01 for Brazilian cranial measurements, 01 Brazilian mandibular measurements, 01 Scottish cranial measurements and 01 Scottish mandibular measurements The present study showed a difference between the two samples studied, but it is not possible to define an unique cause responsible for that because this comprise multifactorial aspects. The quantitative methodology analyzed showed sexual dimorphism in both samples.

Determination sex is one of the most important tasks in the identification of skeletal remains. Previous studies have shown that population differences in size and shape of femora can affect correct sex allocation. This thesis tested the discriminat functions generated from different populations and confirmed population specificity of the femur discriminant functions. Two samples of the identified adult femora for this project was used. First sample originates from the Czech population living in the 1st 20th century (78 males and 81 females) and second sample originates from the Czech population living in the 2nd 20th century (67 males and 35 females). Both samples also help us estimate the influence of secular trend of the femur'variables to the correct sex classification by discriminat functions calculated in the Czech population. The results showed the existence of the secular trend in femora size dimensions. Only the dimensions of the femoral head (vertical head diameter-F18, transverse head diameter-F19 and maximum diameter of the femoral head-MPH) and sagittal subtrochanteric diameter (F10) not chandged significantly during the 20th century. The secular trend has negatively influenced the correct sex classification, always for one subpopulation. Only the dimensions in which the secular trend...

No description available.

Forensic science television shows, especially CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, have been said to influence the public’s perception of how forensic science is used and create interest in studying forensic science and pursuing jobs in the field. This study investigates this claim through a variety of methods. First, definitions of the CSI effect are discussed, including how it was first used and mentioned in the media. Second, survey data from students in a forensic anthropology course regarding interest in forensic science media and educational and career choices are analyzed. Third, the number and debut dates of forensic science non-fiction books, novels, non-fiction television shows, and television dramas are investigated. Finally, a content analysis of the television show Bones is undertaken in order to understand how the forensic anthropology presented in this show differs from the actual practice of forensic anthropology. Results of this study indicate that, overall, students who wanted to pursue forensic science careers and graduate study did not watch more forensic science television shows and read more forensic science novels than those who did not want to pursue forensic science careers and graduate study. Also, based on the decreased interest in a number of forensic careers, it appears that respondents may have started the course with false perceptions regarding the actual job descriptions of these careers. Regarding the number and debut dates of forensic science media, this study found that the majority of non-fiction forensic anthropology books, non-fiction television shows, television dramas debuted after CSI appeared, corroborating the claim that CSI led to an increase in interest in forensic iii anthropology. In addition, this study found that while much of Bones is fictionalized for entertainment purposes, many of the techniques and analyses presented on the show have a peripheral basis in scientific methods.

No description available.

New data on human skeletal remains from Site 35 in Salango, Ecuador is combined with existing data presented by Jastremski (2006) to compile a more comprehensive report about the health conditions of the people. Site 35, which is associated with the Manteño culture that flourished in the Integration period from A.D. 500 – 1532, has been determined to comprise a singular population that is represented by a minimum of 27 individuals. In addition to more comprehensive conclusions about Site 35, this thesis uses the data from Site 35 in an extended comparison of health among prehistoric sites from six additional sites to observe general trends over time and across geography. Through an indepth analysis of distinct health traits, the general conclusion matches previous reports that the overall quality of health in Ecuador declined over time. However, the present analysis shows a less dramatic decline for coastal sites than for inland sites. / Includes bibliography. / Thesis (M.S.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2013.

Para a execução da etapa inicial da identificação médico-legal de restos humanos (antropometria e exame dos arcos dentários), faz-se necessária uma limpeza prévia da ossada, para a remoção de tecidos moles putrefeitos. Os casos não identificados por esses métodos tradicionais, poderão ser submetidos ao exame de DNA. No entanto, apesar do grande avanço da biologia molecular, utilizando a amplificação de DNA pela PCR, algumas limitações que afetam a habilidade de se obter DNA em restos humanos, permanecem. Dessa forma, o objetivo deste trabalho foi fornecer subsídios morfológicos para os analistas forenses, com ênfase na prática médico-legal, visando uma utilização mais eficiente do DNA obtido de osso compacto de restos humanos em decomposição ou já esqueletizados, sem tecidos moles aderidos. Foi realizado o estudo da microestrutura do tecido ósseo compacto femoral, de restos humanos em decomposição, ainda com tecidos moles, que foram limpos pela fervura em água (n = 7) e ossadas já esqueletizadas pela decomposição natural, que não foram fervidas (n = 8). Destes, seis ossadas foram provenientes de cemitério público regular, após 3 anos de inumação, 1 ossada proveniente da região amazônica, e 1 ossada de origem desconhecida. Estas duas ultimas, apresentado-se porosas ou quebradiças. As análises morfológicas de cortes histológicos foram coradas com hematoxilina e eosina e o DNA amplificado pela PCR para os loci CSF1PO, TPOX, TH01, F13A0, FESFPS, vWA, D16S539, D7S820, D13S317 e amelogenina. Os resultados da análise desses dois grupos foram comparados com os de cadáveres frescos (n = 5) do Serviço de Verificação de Óbitos da Capital. A fervura dos ossos, do modo como é realizada no Instituto Médico Legal de São Paulo, pode aumentar a eosinofilia da matriz óssea e, em alguns casos, pode promover a desagregação dos ósteons. Tal procedimento pode remover células, mas pode também remover possíveis inibidores da PCR, favorecendo a análise do DNA obtido destas amostras. O fator limitante para a obtenção e análise de DNA, em amostras de ossos limpos por fervura, é a quantidade exígua de células. Ossos não submetidos à fervura, após inumação por três anos ou há mais tempo em contato com a terra, podem apresentar alterações da microestrutura. No entanto, a presença de hemácias preservadas e núcleos de osteócitos nestas amostras, indica melhor preservação de células em relação às amostras de ossos fervidos. O fator limitante para a análise de DNA nestas amostras é a presença sugestiva de inibidores da reação de amplificação pela PCR. Restos humanos, sem tecidos moles, macroscópicamente não preservados (porosos e quebradiços), e não submetidos à fervura, apresentam alterações de perda de matriz mineralizada; no entanto, nestas amostras ainda é possível encontrar células preservadas. Os resultados obtidos no neste trabalho permitem traçar algumas estratégias para uma melhor utilização nos protocolos de extração e análise do DNA em osso compacto de restos humanos. / To the first essential step to forensic identification of human remains (anthropological study of race, sex, age, etc) it is necessary a previous cleaning of the bones, to remove decomposing soft tissues. Medico-legal inconclusive or non identified cases, by using these traditional methods, could be subjected to DNA analysis. However, in spite of advances in human identification techniques, specially by PCR amplified DNA, some limitations that affect the ability to obtain DNA in human remains still persist. Therefore, the aim of this study was to provide additional support from morphological analysis, to help forensic analysts personnel to utilise more efficiently the DNA, extracted from compact bones of human remains in decomposition or already skeletonized corpse, it means without soft tissues, with special emphasis in the legal-medicine practice. Femoral compact bones were obtained from: 7 human remains found on the ground, in different degree of decomposition which were cleaned by boiling to remove soft tissues; also studied were collections of bones from 8 corpses having undergone natural decomposition: 6 human remains exhumed after 3 years from a common public cemetery in São Paulo City; 1 case from amazon region and 1 case with no information, both cases remained from long time (more than 3 years) in contact with soil. All eight cases, were not boiled as no soft tissue were adhered. As a control, five cadavers 12 to 16 hours post mortem were also used. The compact bones histological sections were stained by haematoxilin and eosin and the loci CSF1PO, TPOX, TH01, F13A01,FESFPS, vWA, D16S539, D7S820, D13S317 and amelogenin were amplified by PCR.The procedure for boiling the human remains utilised in the Legal Medicine Institute of São Paulo would have increased the eosinophily of bone matrix and, in some cases, promoted the desaggregation of the osteons. In addition these procedures would have removed the cells, but in some cases would have removed possible inhibitors of the PCR, favouring in this way the analysis of DNA obtained from these samples. The limiting factor to obtain successful analysis in bones submitted to boiling seem to be the low quantity of nuclei present in these samples. For the other hand, in bones not cleaned by boiling, the presence of preserved red cells and oscteocyte nuclei inside the lacunae indicates better preservation of cells in relation to those bones cleaned by boiling. The limiting factor to obtain successful DNA analysis in bones exhumed or in contact of soil, is the suggestive presence of inhibitors of PCR. Porous and brittle bones from human remains, without soft tissues that are not processed by boiling, present alterations through loss of mineralised matrix, although it is still possible to found preserved cells in these samples. The results presented in this work clarify concerns about viability of DNA for identification analysis. They also help to establish better strategies for optimisation of DNA extraction and analysis in compact bones of human remains.

A preocupação com a identificação, que é o processo pelo qual se determina a identidade, é bastante antiga. Atualmente, as relações sociais ou exigências civis, penais, administrativas e comerciais necessitam de sua comprovação. A identificação de pessoas mortas é fundamental, não somente para aplacar as necessidades emocionais de seus amigos e familiares, como também para que providências legais relativas ao óbito possam ser tomadas. Infelizmente, amiúde ocorrem situações em que corpos chegam aos Institutos Médico-Legais em estado de putrefação ou esqueletização, e não são identificados. Em tais situações, análises antropométricas para estimar, por exemplo, idade, gênero e estatura, são de grande valia. Nestes casos, a reconstrução facial forense será muito importante, pois pode possibilitar o reconhecimento e, por conseguinte, aumentar consideravelmente as chances de identificação. A reconstrução facial forense tridimensional pode ser manual ou digital. A reconstrução facial forense digital tornou-se possível com o advento da Tecnologia da Informação, imaginologia médica e novos softwares de imagem 3D e de reconstrução. Para a realização da reconstrução facial, são necessários dados relativos à espessura dos tecidos moles da face. Não há na literatura registros de trabalhos de reconstrução facial digital realizados com dados de tecidos moles obtidos a partir de amostras constituídas por sujeitos brasileiros. Há duas tabelas de espessura de tecidos moles publicadas para a população brasileira: uma obtida a partir de medidas realizadas em cadáveres frescos (padrão cadáveres frescos), e outra a partir de medidas em exames de ressonância magnética (padrão ressonância magnética). O objetivo do presente trabalho foi realizar três diferentes reconstruções faciais forenses digitais caracterizadas (com cabelo, cílios e sobrancelha) de um sujeito brasileiro (realizadas a partir de um padrão internacional e dois padrões nacionais de espessura de tecidos moles da face), e avaliar as reconstruções faciais forenses digitais comparando-as com fotografias do próprio indivíduo e de outros nove sujeitos. Para isso, foram utilizadas imagens DICOM de uma Tomografia Computadorizada (TC) cedidas por um voluntário que, uma vez convertidas, foram utilizadas para a efetivação das reconstruções faciais digitais. Uma vez realizadas as três reconstruções, as mesmas foram comparadas com fotografias do voluntário que teve a sua face reconstruída e outros nove sujeitos. Trinta examinadores participaram desta tentativa de reconhecimento. O sujeito-alvo, que teve a sua face reconstruída, foi reconhecido por 26,67% dos examinadores na reconstrução realizada com o Padrão nacional de Ressonância Magnética, 23,33% na reconstrução realizada com o Padrão nacional de Cadáveres Frescos e 20,00% na reconstrução realizada com o Padrão Internacional, tendo sido o sujeito mais reconhecido nos dois primeiros padrões. Os reconhecimentos acertados do sujeito-alvo indicam que a reconstrução facial forense digital, realizada com parâmetros empregados neste trabalho, pode ser ferramenta útil para, havendo um ou vários sujeitos reconhecidos, chegar-se a uma identificação positiva. / The concern with the identification, that is the process by which the identity is determined, is quite old. Currently, the social relations or civil, criminal, administrative and commercial requirements need its evidence. The identification of deceased persons is essential not only to assuage the emotional needs of their friends and family, but also to allow legal actions related to death. Unfortunately, situations often occur when bodies arrive at the Medico-Legal Institutes in a state of putrefaction or skeletonization, and are not identified. In such situations, anthropometric analysis to estimate, for example, age, gender and height, are of great value. In these cases, forensic facial reconstruction is very important because it may serve to recognize and therefore increase the chances of identification. The three-dimensional forensic facial reconstruction can be manual or digital. The digital forensic facial reconstruction was made possible with the advent of Information Technology, medical imaging and new 3D image and reconstruction softwares. To perform facial reconstruction, data on the thickness of the soft tissues of the face are necessary. There is no literature records of facial reconstruction works carried out with digital data of soft tissues obtained from samples of Brazilian subjects. There are two tables of thickness of soft tissue published for the Brazilian population: one obtained from measurements performed in fresh cadavers (fresh cadavers pattern), and another from measurements on magnetic resonance imaging (magnetic resonance pattern). The aim of this study was to perform three different characterized digital forensic facial reconstructions (with hair, eyelashes and eyebrows) of a Brazilian subject (based on an international pattern and two national patterns for soft facial tissue thickness), and evaluate the digital forensic facial reconstructions comparing them to photos of the individual and other nine subjects. We used DICOM images of a computed tomography (CT) donated by a volunteer that, once converted, were used for the realization of the digital facial reconstructions. Once we\'ve performed the three reconstructions, they were compared with photographs of the volunteer who had his face reconstructed and of nine other subjects. Thirty examiners participated in this recognition attempt. The target subject, who had his face reconstructed, was recognized by 26.67% of the examiners in the reconstruction performed with the national Magnetic Resonance Pattern, 23.33% in the reconstruction performed with the national Fresh Cadavers Pattern of and 20.00 % in the reconstruction performed with the International Pattern, and the target-subject was the most recognized subject in the first two patterns. The correct recognitions of the subject indicate that the digital forensic facial reconstruction, carried out with parameters used in this study, may be a useful tool, with one or more subjects recognized to achieve a positive identification.

Esta tese é composta por três capítulos. O primeiro teve o objetivo de avaliar a acurácia e a semelhança da reconstrução facial forense computadorizada (RFFC) tridimensional realizada com softwares livres. As RFFC foram realizadas no programa Blender® a partir de tomografias do crânio, utilizando templates do MakeHuman®. A avaliação da acurácia foi feita no CloudCompare® que comparou a RFFC com a pele na tomografia, enquanto a avaliação da semelhança foi realizada no Picasa® utilizando fotografias dos participantes. Os resultados mostraram que do total de pontos que formam cada reconstrução, 63.20% a 73.67% apresentaram uma distância de -2,5 <= x <= 2,5mm entre a RFFC e a superfície da pele, enquanto a distância média variou entre -1,66 a 0,33mm. Duas das quatro reconstruções foram reconhecidas objetivamente pelo Picasa®. As RFFC realizadas utilizando esses softwares apresentam plausíveis níveis de acurácia e semelhança, portanto indicam valor para uso no campo forense. Os outros dois capítulos tiveram como objetivo avaliar a estabilidade métrica facial do mesmo indivíduo por meio da análise de fotografias tomadas em um intervalo de tempo de cinco anos. Trata-se de um estudo longitudinal realizado com fotografias frontais padronizadas de 666 indivíduos adultos divididos por faixa etária e sexo. Com o programa SAFF 2D foram marcados 32 pontos, cujas coordenadas foram utilizadas para calcular 40 medidas, sendo 20 horizontais e 20 verticais. Cada uma dessas medidas foi dividida pelo diâmetro da íris e assim foram obtidas razões iridianas. Os resultados mostraram que a maioria das razões não sofreu variação estatisticamente significante. As razões que tiveram maior variação foram aquelas da região do nariz e da boca. Quando se compara as faixas etárias entre si observa-se que a grande maioria das razões é diferente, mostrando a influência da idade nas dimensões faciais. Quando se compara a estabilidade dentro mesmo sexo observa-se que houve razões que diminuíram e outras aumentaram tanto no sexo feminino quanto no sexo masculino, enquanto outras variaram apenas em um dos sexos. Quando se compara a variação entre os sexos observa-se que a maioria das razões é diferente, mostrando o dimorfismo sexual das medidas faciais. A face passa por alterações métricas ao longo da vida em todas as faixas etárias, principalmente na região do nariz e boca, com maiores diferenças após os 60 anos. Além disso, algumas medidas faciais são mais influenciadas pelo sexo do que outras. Entretanto, a maioria das medidas levantadas se mantem relativamente estáveis dentro de um período de 5 anos tanto em relação ao sexo quanto a idade. / This thesis contains three chapters. The aim of the first chapter was to evaluate the accuracy and recognition level of three-dimensional (3D) computerized forensic craniofacial reconstruction (CCFR) performed in a blind test on open-source software using computed tomography data from live subjects. The CCFRs were completed using Blender® with 3D models obtained from the computed tomography data and templates from the MakeHuman® program. The evaluation of accuracy was carried out in CloudCompare®, by geometric comparison of the CCFR to the subject 3D face model (obtained from the CT data). A recognition level was performed using the Picasa® with a frontal standardized photography. The results were presented from all the points that form the CCFR model, with an average for each comparison between 63.20% and 73.67% with a distance -2.5 <= x <= 2.5 mm from the skin surface and the average distances were 1.66 to 0.33 mm. Two of the four CCFRs were correctly matched by the Picasa® tool. Free software programs are capable of producing 3D CCFRs with plausible levels of accuracy and recognition and therefore indicate their value for use in forensic applications. The other two chapters study the facial comparison and aimed to evaluate the facial metrical stability of an individual through photographs taken in a time interval of five years. It is a longitudinal study composed of standard frontal photographs of 666 adults divided by sex and age groups. By using the SAFF 2D® software, 32 landmarks were positioned, whose coordinates were used to calculate 40 measurements, 20 horizontal and 20 vertical. Each of these measurements was divided by iris diameter and thus iridian ratios were obtained. The results showed that most of the ratios did not suffer statistically significant variations. The ratios that had the greatest variation in the different age groups were those of the nose and mouth regions. When comparing the age groups with each other it is observed that the great majority of the reasons are different, showing the influence of age on the facial dimensions. When comparing stability with respect to sex, it was observed that there were ratios that decreased and others that increased in both sexes, while other ratios varied only in females or in males. When the sexes were compared, it was observed that the majority of the ratios were different, showing sexual dimorphism of the facial measures. The face undergoes metrical alterations throughout the life, mainly in the region of the nose and mouth, with the greatest differences seen in those who are aged 60 years and older. In addition, some facial measures are more influenced by sex than others. However, most of the measures raised have remained relatively stable within a period of five years in both sex and age groups.

L’estimation du délai post mortem est une étape fondamentale en anthropologie médico-légale. À ce jour, peu de méthodes précises et fiables existent. Les objectifs de notre travail étaient d’étudier le tissu osseux et son évolution dans les années et siècles suivant le décès en développant la Résonance Magnétique Nucléaire (RMN) des solides du carbone13C et du proton1H. Nous avons analysé une centaine d’os humains et animaux pour lesquels nous connaissions l’âge au décès, le sexe, la date de décès et les conditions de conservation. Nous avons caractérisé les os au niveau moléculaire en identifiant le collagène, les lipides et l’hydroxyapatite constitutifs du tissu osseux. Nous avons développé une méthode RMN permettant de distinguer des altérations de certains échantillons attestant de la présence d’adipocire au sein du tissu osseux, ou des dégradations sur des échantillons très anciens. L’étude de l’âge au décès et du sexe des sujets n’a pas mis en évidence une grande influence de ces facteurs sur les données RMN même si, pour des délais post mortem de 0 ou 1 an, les sujets féminins présentent quantitativement plus de lipides que les sujets masculins. L’analyse des conditions de conservation des individus montre un développement plus important d’adipocire pour les os laissés à l’air libre comparés aux os enterrés. Enfin, nous rapportons une décroissance quantitative du collagène et des lipides présents au sein du tissu osseux lorsque l’intervalle post mortem augmente. Cette décroissance est beaucoup plus rapide pour les lipides (quelques années) que pour le collagène (plusieurs millénaires) alors que l’hydroxyapatite présente une relative stabilité dans les premiers siècles suivant le décès. / The post mortem interval estimation is a fundamental step in forensic anthropology and up to now there are little accurate and reliable methods to do so. The objectives of our study were to investigate the bone composition and its evolution over years and centuries following the death by developing carbon 13C and proton 1H solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). We analyzed about one hundred human and animal bones for which the age at death, sex, date of death and the storage conditions were known. Bones were characterized at the molecular level by identification of collagen, lipids and hydroxyapatite embedded in the bone matrix. We have designed a NMR-based method that allows determining alterations on some samples, evidencing the presence of adipocere (bone wax) within the bone, or finding bone tissue deterioration on some very old samples. Subject age at death and sex did not reveal significant changes on NMR data, except for post mortem interval ranging between 0 to 1 year, where female subjects had quantitatively more lipids in their bones than males. Storage conditions may promote a greater development of adipocere especially for bones left in the open air compared to those buried. Finally, we report a quantitative decrease of collagen and lipids present in the bone tissue when the post mortem interval increases. This decrease is much faster for lipids than for collagen where as the hydroxyapatite has a relative stability in the first centuries after the death. Decreases occur with very different time constants, ranging from years to millennia.