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Ce mémoire porte sur la configuration des stalles et le confort des vaches. Cent troupeaux laitiers ont été visités au Québec (n=60) et en Ontario (n=40). La configuration des stalles, les dimensions corporelles, les blessures, la boiterie, la propreté et le temps de repos ont été mesurés pour 40 vaches Holstein en lactation. Plus de 50 % des vaches étaient logées dans une stalle trop petite, 79 % des vaches avaient au moins une blessure et 25 % étaient boiteuses, mais seulement 15 % étaient sales. Outre la hauteur de la barre d’attache, lorsque les dimensions des stalles étaient augmentées pour se rapprocher des recommandations, les risques de blessures et de boiteries diminuaient et le temps de repos ainsi que le nombre de changements de position debout/couchée augmentaient. Toutefois, une stalle plus grande augmentait les chances d’avoir des vaches sales. Ces résultats suggèrent, entre autres, qu’une barre d’attache bien positionnée et une chaine suffisamment longue améliorent le confort des vaches. / This thesis focuses on tie-stall configuration and cow comfort. One hundred dairy herds were visited in Quebec, (n = 60) and in Ontario (n = 40). Stall configuration, body dimensions, injuries, lameness, cleanliness and lying time were measured for 40 lactating Holstein cows. Over than 50% of the cows were in a stall too small, 79% of cows had at least one injury and 25% were lamed, but only 15% were dirty. Except for tie-rail height, every time the size of the stalls was increased closer to the recommendations, the risk of injuries and lameness decreased, and the lying time and the number of lying bouts increased. However, a larger stall size increased the chances of the cows to be dirty. These results suggest, among other, that a tie-rail forward position and a chain length that meet current recommendations would improve cow welfare.

Au cours des dernières années, la production laitière a été en croissance constante en raison de plusieurs facteurs tels que l’utilisation d’individus plus performants. L’augmentation du nombre d’enregistrements de vaches de la race Jersey confirme l’intérêt économique des producteurs pour cette race en raison de la production élevée de protéines et de gras du lait par rapport aux autres races. Cependant, les embryons de la race Jersey ont montré des difficultés dans le processus de cryopréservation lequel peut aider à une commercialisation massive de matériel génétique de cette race. Il a été observé que la race Jersey présente un faible taux de gestation lors du transfert des embryons après la cryopréservation en comparaison aux embryons de la race Holstein. Nous proposons que cette différence entre les deux races bovines soit due à des caractéristiques spécifiques de la race au niveau du phénotype et du génome. Dans un premier temps, les résultats de cette étude ont mis en évidence des différences au niveau du phénotype et du profil lipidique et génomique de l’embryon Jersey. Celui-ci est caractérisé par un contenu de lipides associé à une faible fonction mitochondriale laquelle déterminera le faible succès à la cryopréservation. Par la suite, nous avons évalué au niveau du phénotype et de la génomique, l’utilisation de la L-carnitine dans le milieu de culture in vitro afin de compenser cette caractéristique des embryons de la race Jersey. Cette étude sur la supplémentation de L-carnitine a permis d'identifier une faible réponse chez les embryons Jersey qui est expliqué par le faible effet de la L-carnitine sur l’activité mitochondriale. Afin de définir l’impact de la fonction mitochondriale sur la viabilité de l’embryon lors de nos études, nous avons mis au point une méthode pour compenser la dysfonction mitochondriale sur le développement embryonnaire chez le bovin. Enfin, l’application de la vitamine K2 dans le milieu de culture in vitro montre un impact positif sur la fonction mitochondriale qui a mené à des changements phénotypiques et génomiques chez les embryons bovins. En conclusion, ce projet a permis de caractériser et d’identifier la race comme un facteur qui limite la cryopréservation des embryons et peut influencer sur le métabolisme embryonnaire au niveau des mitochondries. La fonction mitochondriale est une caractéristique importante sur le développement embryonnaire bovin qui peut ouvrir sur des perspectives d’amélioration de la viabilité embryonnaire. / For the past decades, milk production has been increasing due to several factors such as the use of high genetic merit individuals. In this regard, Jersey cows have been of interest for the producers because of high protein and fat indexes in their milk compared to others breeds. However, there are some challenges associated with Jersey particularly poor results using embryo cryopreservation which could help to massively commercialize the genetic material of this breed. It was observed that the Jersey breed have low pregnancy rates following embryo transfer of cryopreserved Jersey embryos compared to the Holstein breed. Here, we hypothesised that those differences between these two breeds in embryo cryopreservation are due to specific phenotypic and genotypic characteristics at the embryo level. Initially, the results of this study showed differences on the phenotype, lipid profile and genomic differences of Jersey embryo characterized by the higher lipid droplets content associated with low mitochondrial function which will determine the low success with cryopreservation. Subsequently, we assessed the phenotype and genotype of embryos using L-carnitine supplementation in the in vitro embryo culture medium in order to compensate those characteristics in Jersey embryos. The results of this study revealed moderate beneficial effects of L-carnitine supplementation in Jersey embryos through low effect of L-carnitine on mitochondrial activity. To define the impact of mitochondrial function on the embryo viability during our study, we developed a method to compensate the mitochondrial dysfunction during early embryo development in bovine model. To do that, Vitamin K2 supplementation in the in vitro embryo culture medium was applied which showed a positive effect on the mitochondrial function leading to satisfactory phenotypic and genotypic changes in the embryos. In conclusion, this study resulted in identification and characterization of the cattle breeds effects as a critical factor on cryopreservation performance and embryonic metabolism of the mitochondria. Our results emphasized that mitochondrial function is an important feature of embryonic development in cattle, which can provide opportunities to improve embryonic viability.

Avec l'arrivée des techniques de reproduction assistée et de la génomique, le progrès génétique chez les bovins laitiers est plus rapide que jamais, favorisant maintenant l'utilisation d'animaux de plus en plus jeunes pour la reproduction. Cette situation aurait possiblement un impact sur la qualité des embryons, affectant potentiellement la génisse de la génération suivante. Ce projet vise à documenter l'effet de l'âge sur la qualité de l'embryon et, en l'occurence, à identifier des pistes pour corriger la situation. Dix jeunes femelles Holstein ont subi trois cycles de stimulation ovarienne (8, 11, 14 mois). Les ovules ont ensuite été fécondés in vitro (semence d'un même taureau adulte), générant trois lots d’embryons par animal. Grâce à la plateforme EmbryoGENE, il fut possible de mesurer l'expression génique ainsi que l'état de méthylation de l'ADN au stade blastocyste. En premier lieu, l'analyse transcriptomique des contrastes selon l'âge (8 vs 14 mois et 11 vs 14 mois) a permis de dénombrer 242 gènes différentiellement exprimés pour le premier contraste et 296 pour le deuxième. Parmi les voies géniques affectées par l'âge, on retrouve notamment les voies mTOR et PPAR, ainsi que la voie de réponse au stress oxydatif médiée par NRF2. Pour sa part, l'analyse épigénétique a permis d'identifier 5787 régions différentiellement méthylées pour le premier contraste et 3658 pour le deuxième. Il est possible d'observer une tendance à l'hyperméthylation chez les embryons obtenus à partir de donneuses de 8 mois, alors qu'une hypométhylation du génome plus marquée est notée chez les embryons provenant des donneuses de 11 mois. Le premier constat est que les embryons sont marginalement affectés par l'âge de la donneuse et que la qualité s’avère très bonne dès 8 mois. Les résultats suggèrent une causemétabolique pour expliquer les différences observées, trahissant un impact plus grand des conditions in vitrosur les embryons produits par les plus jeunes donneuses.

The effects of quantity of dietary starch and type of dietary protein on hindgut fermentation were evaluated. Thirty-two Holstein bull calves were fed diets containing variable amounts of orchardgrass hay and a grain mixture. The amount of starch and types of protein were: [L1] low starch, soybean meal (SBM); [L2] low starch, fishmeal plus dried brewers' grains (FBG); [Hl] high starch and SBM; [H2] high starch, FBG. The percentages of acid detergent fiber (ADF) and crude protein were: [L1] 19.2%, 15.1%; [L2] 18.0%, 15.6%; [H1] 9.5%, 14.9%; [H2] 9.6%, 15.4%. After calves were fed the diets for 17 days, they were slaughtered to obtain their intestinal tracts. Ileal, cecal, and colonic digesta and feces of calves fed Hl and H2 versus Ll and L2 contained less water and ADF. Concentration of nitrogen in digesta and feces did not differ. Ileal, cecal, and colonic digesta from calves fed H1 and H2 had significantly greater numbers of viable anaerobic bacteria and lower pH._ Cecal digesta from calves fed high fiber diets (L1 and L2) had lower total VFA, propionate, and buytrate concentrations than calves fed high starch diets. Colonic and cecal digesta of calves fed diets H1 and H2 contained less ammonia. Acetate and propionate flux across cecal epithelium ro vrtro was faster for diets H1 and H2. Results indicate that high dietary starch stimulated anaerobic bacterial growth and fermentation in the hindgut, and enhanced acetate and propionate flux across the cecal epithelium. Acetate and propionate transport across the cecal wall probably is not due solely to passive diffusion, but it may involve a carrier. Replacement of SBM by FBG also altered cecal fermentation to a lesser extent. Calves fed H2 had significantly greater numbers of viable anaerobic bacteria in cecal and ileal digesta and 2 to 10 times the number of bacteria associated with cecal epithelium than calves fed the other diets. Butyrate cecal concentration and production was significantly increased when calves were fed diets containing FBG. Cecal VFA production may account for approximately 3 to 5% of digestible energy intake. / Ph. D. / incomplete_metadata

Four successive groups of four calves each (~ 4 mo old) were individually penned and observed during a 14 d trial period for choice of concentrate. Prior calf diets contained soybean meal (SBM) (for two groups and distillers grains in place of SBM for two groups. Concentrates contained approximately equal amounts of corn with either SBM, peanut meal (PNM), fish meal (FSM), or corn gluten meal (CGM). Each day of four trials, .45 kg of each concentrate was randomly assigned to one of four equal feed box sections. Calf feeding position was recorded every 30 sec for no more than 50 min or until calves stopped eating. In addition, 1.36 kg of first cutting orchardgrass hay was offered twice per day. Measurements of amount of each feed consumed, order of consumption and length of time spent eating each feed were analyzed statistically to determine preference. Overall preference was for SBM, closely followed by PNM, both over FSM and CGM, with the l preference status of FSM showing the most change over time by decreasing throughout the trial periods. Neither section in which feed was offered nor previous experience with SBM significantly influenced preference. In addition, twenty calves ranging in age from 4 mo to 7 mo were divided and housed in four groups of five and observed during a 30 d trial period for acceptability of the protein feeds tested for preference. Acceptability, measured subjectively as length of time required by calves to eat each feed, was greatest for SBM, closely followed by PNM and CGM, and least for FSM. Analysis of calf weight gain showed no differences between feeds. / Master of Science

Eight mature Holstein and Jersey cows beginning their third or later lactation were used throughout this study to evaluate various aspects of the lactation cycle. The lactation (control) diet consisted of 28.8% corn silage, 22.4% alfalfa haylage, and 48.8% concentrate dry matter. Breeds responded differently to the stress of calving. Jerseys had higher plasma somatotropin on day after calving, but Holsteins had higher glucose on day of and day after calving. Plasma parathyroid hormone did not differ between breeds, but Jerseys had higher 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D₃ than Holsteins on both days after calving. Plasma total calcium and ionized calcium concentrations were lower for Jerseys on both days. Holsteins and Jerseys had similar concentrations of hormones and calcium at 4 and 8 wk. Ionized calcium as a percent of total calcium was elevated at calving, as compared to other times in the lactation cycle, in both breeds. From 9 to 21 wk, 4 of 8 Holsteins and 4 of 8 Jerseys were fed a diet supplemented with tallow. Holsteins fed tallow had lower somatotropin than Holsteins fed control diet at 14 and 18 wk. Plasma glucose, parathyroid hormone, and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D₃ were similar between tallow- and control-fed cows in both breeds. Plasma total calcium and ionized calcium were higher at 20 wk for Holsteins and Jerseys fed tallow. Dry matter intake was not influenced by diet in either breed. However, Holsteins, but not Jerseys, fed tallow produced more milk and higher body weights than Holsteins fed the control diet. Balance trials results indicated dietary tallow addition increased energy intake, energy digestibility, and metabolizable energy, but it decreased partial efficiency of metabolizable energy utilization for lactation. Although digestibility of calcium and magnesium was unchanged, tallow-fed cows were in greater positive calcium and magnesium balance than control-fed cows. Stage of lactation had little effect on specific gravity, shear stress, percent mineral, and histological measurements of biopsied rib samples. However, Jersey rib had higher specific gravity than Holstein rib. All cows had similar bone histological features throughout lactation. / Ph. D.

Two data sets of first-parity classification records were analyzed to examine heterogeneity of variances for conformation in the U. S. Holstein population. Data set I included records for final score and linear descriptive traits on cows scored from 1983 through 1986. Results indicated a strong negative correlation (r = -.59) between within-herd standard deviation for final score and herd-mean final score. Regression analysis suggested a curvilinear decrease (concave up) in within-herd standard deviation for final score with increasing herd-mean final score. Within-herd standard deviations for linear descriptive traits demonstrated a linear decline with increases in herd-mean final score. Daughter contemporary deviation for final score was regressed on her sire’s Predicted Difference type within 25 mean/standard deviation subclasses. Response to selection was greatest in high-mean/variance herds and least in low-mean/variance herds. Restricted maximum likelihood estimates of sire and error variance were approximated within each of 5 herd-mean subclasses of the data. Regressions revealed environmental variance for final score decreased curvilinearly (concave up) with increasing herd-mean final score. Genetic variance declined linearly. Heritability demonstrated no significant trend. For most linear traits, environmental variance decreased linearly with increasing herd-mean final score. Linear decreases in genetic variance were noted for foot angle, udder depth and rump angle, Heritability had positive trends for body depth, angularity, rear udder height, udder support, and teat placement. Data set II included first-parity final scores on cows classified from 1967 to 1986. Relationships estimated between herd mean and within-herd variance for final score on recent data were confirmed. Positive trends over time were noted for: within-herd standard deviation for final score, the antagonistic relationship between herd mean and within-herd variance, the antagonistic relationship between average Predicted Difference type and within-herd variance, and average herd-mean Predicted Difference type. Results indicate selection for final score was occurring in the population. Differences in within-herd selection differentials accounted for 24% of the differences in within-herd variance for final score. / Ph. D.

Telomeres form protective caps at the ends of linear chromosomes. They consist of repetitive DNA nucleotides and associated proteins of the shelterin complex. In vitro telomeres become shorter during cell division and when a critical shortness is reached they trigger a DNA damage response that leads to replicative senescence or apoptosis. Telomere shortening is a recognised hallmark of cellular ageing and seems to be also associated with organismal ageing. Telomere length (TL) and the rate of shortening vary across individuals and several studies have found that short telomeres and fast telomere depletion are associated with poor survival and early onset of age related diseases. However, longitudinal studies are needed to better understand the relationship of TL and TL dynamics with longevity measures. Relevant studies on livestock species are largely missing from the literature. In the dairy industry, farmers are forced to cull a considerable percentage of their heifers and cows at a young age due to fertility problems or diseases. As a consequence many replacement heifers have to be reared to maintain a specific herd size. This results in increased costs, consumption of resources, and damage to the environment. Breeding for an improved productive lifespan is difficult because longevity measures are recorded at the end of life and are known to have a low heritability. Therefore, the expected genetic improvement is generally slow, but could be considerably accelerated if an early life heritable biomarker was identified that is predictive of productive lifespan and could be used for animal selection. The question is if TL could be used as such a biomarker. The objectives of this thesis were to 1) develop robust methods to measure average relative leukocyte TL (RLTL) in cattle, 2) examine RLTL dynamics with age at a population as well as at an individual level, 3) estimate genetic parameters and 4) assess the association of RLTL and RLTL dynamics with productive lifespan. A quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) based assay developed for human studies was adapted to cattle and delivered robust results (repeatability > 80%, coefficient of variation=0.05). Different DNA extraction methods were tested for their effect on RLTL measurements and it was demonstrated that fast silica based DNA extraction methods are suitable for telomere projects which can improve the sample throughput and enable large-scale projects. Subsequently, RLTL in 1328 whole blood samples of 308 Holstein Friesian dairy cows and additionally in 284 whole blood samples of 38 female calves was measured. Repeatability and random regression models were used for the statistical analysis of telomere data. RLTL decreased considerably within the first year of life, but remained relatively stable afterwards at population level. Animals varied significantly in their amount and direction of telomere change. The genetic correlation between consecutive measurements in the same individual weakened with increasing sample interval from r=1 to r=0.69 which indicates that TL in the beginning of life might be under a different genetic control than TL later in life. For the first time in a livestock species we calculated heritability estimates for RLTL which were high (0.32-0.38) and remained constant over life. Long telomeres at birth were not predictive of better productive lifespan. However, animals with long RLTL at the ages of one and five years had a survival advantage. Also, animals that showed less average RLTL attrition over their lives remained in production for longer. TL dynamics differed among individuals and a considerable subset of individuals demonstrated telomere lengthening between consecutive measurements. On average, telomeres tend to shorten early in life and then remain relatively constant. While TL is a heritable trait throughout lifetime, telomere change is not heritable. Short TL at specific ages and telomere attrition over life were associated with poorer productive lifespan.

Les quantités importantes d’aliments consommés et la proportion élevée de concentrés devant être incorporée aux rations pour soutenir les besoins des vaches hautes-productrices induisent bien souvent des perturbations de l’équilibre ruminal. Ces changements se répercutent sur la biohydrogénation ruminale des acides gras insaturés de la ration, qui entraînent à leur tour une inhibition de la synthèse des matières grasses par le tissu mammaire. Plusieurs stratégies nutritionnelles ont été mises de l’avant pour mieux tirer profit des rations riches en concentrés. Récemment, des études ont montré la capacité du carbonate de potassium (K2CO3) à prévenir la chute de matière grasse associée à des régimes à forte teneur en concentrés. Toutefois, on comprend encore mal l’origine de ces effets. Les travaux de cette thèse visaient donc, dans un premier temps, à départager si les effets observés en ajoutant du K2CO3 aux rations des vaches laitières étaient dus à une augmentation de la différence alimentaire cation anion (DACA), de la teneur en ions K+ ou encore du pouvoir tampon de la ration. Un autre objectif de cette thèse était de déterminer les effets d’un ajout de K2CO3 sur la synthèse de matières grasses du lait lorsque des sources d’acides gras polyinsaturés (AGPI) sont introduites dans l’alimentation de la vache laitière. Enfin, les travaux cherchaient à déterminer l’effet d’un ajout de K2CO3 à la ration sur les populations microbiennes du rumen, particulièrement celles reconnues pour être impliquées dans le métabolisme lipidique. Pour répondre à ces questions, une première expérience a été mise en place, où 35 vaches Holstein en début de lactation ont été distribuées selon un plan en blocs complets aléatoires. La période expérimentale était de 28 jours et précédée d’une collecte de 5 jours (covariable). Les cinq rations expérimentales étaient constituées en vue de départager les effets du K2CO3 (témoin vs K2CO3), de la capacité tampon (K2CO3 vs KHCO3), de la DACA (K2CO3 vs KCl) et du type de cations (K2CO3 vs Na2CO3). Dans cette expérience, et contrairement aux études antérieures, l’ajout de K2CO3 aux rations riches en concentrés n’a pas permis d’augmenter la production de lait ou la matière grasse des vaches en début de lactation. De plus, les résultats suggèrent qu’une augmentation du K alimentaire via l’ajout de K2CO3 pourrait induire un déséquilibre ionique cellulaire qui pourrait affecter le transport des nutriments dans les cellules épithéliales mammaires et ainsi affecter la synthèse du lait. Une seconde expérience a ensuite été menée, où 28 vaches Holstein en début de lactation ont été distribuées selon un plan en blocs complets aléatoires. La période expérimentale était également de 28 jours et précédée d’une collecte de 5 jours (covariable). Les quatre rations expérimentales étaient offertes selon un arrangement factoriel 2 × 2, soit 0 ou 1,5 % K2CO3 et 0 ou 2 % d’huile de soya, comme source d’acides gras polyinsaturés. Les résultats ont montré que l’ajout de K2CO3 peut entraîner une augmentation de la sécrétion des matières grasses laitières chez des animaux recevant de grandes quantités de concentrés. Cette augmentation dépend toutefois de la teneur en lipides de la ration. Cette étude a également permis de mettre en lumière une relation positive entre la production laitière et la teneur en chlore du lait. Lors de cette seconde expérience, des échantillons de contenu ruminal ont également été prélevés chez 24 vaches (n = 6) afin d’étudier l’impact d’un supplément de K2CO3 sur l’environnement et les populations microbiennes du rumen des vaches en début de lactation recevant des rations riches en concentrés avec ou sans huile de soya. Ces travaux ont permis de comprendre que le K2CO3 et l’huile de soya ont des effets distincts sur les populations microbiennes. L’ajout de K2CO3 a stimulé la croissance de Butyrivibrio hungatei, bactérie productrice de 18:1 trans-11. L’ajout d’huile de soya a, quant à elle, réduit la présence de Butyrivibrio/Pseudobutyrivibrio, un groupe de bactéries productrices de 18:1 trans-11, de Fibrobacter succinogenes, une bactérie fibrolytique, de Butyrivibrio proteoclasticus, une bactérie productrice de 18:0, et de Streptococcus bovis, une bactérie amylolytique Les travaux regroupés dans cette thèse apportent un éclairage nouveau sur le rôle de la supplémentation minérale sur les performances de production des vaches laitières / Negative energy balance typically appears in early-lactation dairy cows as a consequence of a reduction of dry matter intake, as well as of an increase in energy demand for milk production. To compensate this energy deficit, cows are fed with high-concentrate diets. However, highly fermentable carbohydrates introduced in diets can result in a decreased milk fat synthesis. Previous studies reported that addition of potassium carbonate (K2CO3) to high-concentrate diets helps to maintain milk fat, although the mechanism is yet to be established. Consequently, the objective of the current thesis was, firstly, to investigate the effects of dietary cation-anion difference (DCAD), cation source, and buffering ability of the mineral supplement on rumen biohydrogenation of fatty acids (FA) and production performance of dairy cows fed a high-concentrate diet. Secondly, this thesis aimed at evaluating the effect of K2CO3 on production performance, biohydrogenation of fatty acids, and mineral composition of milk in early-lactation dairy cows fed a high-concentrate diet with or without soybean oil (SBO), as a source of polyunsaturated fatty acid. A third objective of this thesis was to evaluate the effect of K2CO3 supplementation, in diets containing soybean oil (SBO) on rumen microbial population associated with lipid metabolism. Consequently, a first experiment was set up, where 35 early-lactation Holstein cows were used in a randomized complete block design with 33-d periods, including a 5-d pretreatment collection period used as a covariate. Five different dietary treatments were used to assess the effects of K2CO3 (control vs. K2CO3), buffering ability (K2CO3 vs. KHCO3), DCAD (K2CO3 vs. KCl), and cation type (K2CO3 vs. Na2CO3). In this experiment, and as opposed to previous studies, supplementing high-concentrate diets with K2CO3 did not increase milk or milk fat yield in early-lactation cows. Also, results suggested that increasing dietary K through the addition of K2CO3 could lead to a disequilibrium in cellular ion composition that can impair nutrient transport into and out of the mammary epithelial cells, and consequently affect milk synthesis. A second experiment was conducted where 28 ruminally fistulated Holstein cows were used in a randomized complete block design. The experiment lasted 33 d, including a 5-d pre-treatment collection period used as a covariate. Experimental treatments were arranged as a 2 × 2 factorial with 0 or 1.5% K2CO3 and with 0 or 2% SBO. Results of this experiment revealed that potential effect of K2CO3 on milk fat synthesis is dependent on the levels of dietary polyunsaturated FA. Moreover, a positive relation was established between milk Cl concentration and milk yield, suggesting that the equilibrium of this ion is linked to the efficiency of lactogenesis Finally, rumen samples were collected from the rumen of 24 cows enrolled in the second experiment (n = 6) to assess treatment effects on rumen microbial population associated with lipid metabolism. Feeding K2CO3 and SBO had distinct effects on rumen bacteria. Dietary K2CO3 stimulated the growth of Butyrivibrio hungatei, a bacterium recognized to produce trans-11-18:1 during biohydrogenation. Conversely, feeding SBO reduced the growth of Butyrivibrio/Pseudobutyrivibrio bacterium group, known to produce trans-11-18:1, of Fibrobacter succinogenes, a fibrolytic bacterium, of Butyrivibrio proteoclasticus, a bacterium involved in 18:0 production, and of Streptococcus bovis, an amylolytic bacterium. Overall, the experiments conducted and reported in this thesis provide new insights on the impact of mineral supplementation on milk performance in dairy cows.