No description available.

Measles is one of the most contagious diseases known to mankind. Despite the availability of a safe and effective vaccine, approximately 164,000 measles-related deaths were recorded in 2008. The inherent restricted host tropism of MV means that the development of authentic rodent models will be a valuable research tool in testing new vaccines and antivirals. In addition to the receptor requirement, mouse innate immunity has been shown to inhibit MV growth. In this thesis, the contributions of several key components of the mouse innate immune system on the inhibition of MV replication were examined. The transcription factor interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3), which normally plays a key role in mediating innate immune signaling, contributed relatively little in inhibiting MV replication both in vitro and in vivo. In contrast, the JAK/STAT pathway and the double-stranded RNA inducible protein kinase, PKR, played more important roles in controlling virus replication. The resurgence of measles in areas where the virus was once thought to be eradicated makes the development of anti-MV treatments essential. Concurrent to the development of an animal model to better study its pathogenesis, we wanted to look at the effect of MV inhibitors on its replication. The MV fusion inhibitor, carbobenzoxy-D-phenylalanine-L-phenylalanine-glycine (ZfFG), was developed in the past to study fusion; however, its mechanism of action has not yet been elucidated. To examine this, spontaneous ZfFG-resistant mutants were generated and characterized. Mutations were found in the HRB region of the fusion (F) protein, and when these were modeled using published paramyxovirus F crystal structures, data suggested that ZfFG targeted a small pocket present between the head and stalk regions of its pre-fusion conformation. An authentic mouse model of measles developed from findings in this study may allow for in vivo efficacy testing of ZfFG in the future.

Measles is one of the most contagious diseases known to mankind. Despite the availability of a safe and effective vaccine, approximately 164,000 measles-related deaths were recorded in 2008. The inherent restricted host tropism of MV means that the development of authentic rodent models will be a valuable research tool in testing new vaccines and antivirals. In addition to the receptor requirement, mouse innate immunity has been shown to inhibit MV growth. In this thesis, the contributions of several key components of the mouse innate immune system on the inhibition of MV replication were examined. The transcription factor interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3), which normally plays a key role in mediating innate immune signaling, contributed relatively little in inhibiting MV replication both in vitro and in vivo. In contrast, the JAK/STAT pathway and the double-stranded RNA inducible protein kinase, PKR, played more important roles in controlling virus replication. The resurgence of measles in areas where the virus was once thought to be eradicated makes the development of anti-MV treatments essential. Concurrent to the development of an animal model to better study its pathogenesis, we wanted to look at the effect of MV inhibitors on its replication. The MV fusion inhibitor, carbobenzoxy-D-phenylalanine-L-phenylalanine-glycine (ZfFG), was developed in the past to study fusion; however, its mechanism of action has not yet been elucidated. To examine this, spontaneous ZfFG-resistant mutants were generated and characterized. Mutations were found in the HRB region of the fusion (F) protein, and when these were modeled using published paramyxovirus F crystal structures, data suggested that ZfFG targeted a small pocket present between the head and stalk regions of its pre-fusion conformation. An authentic mouse model of measles developed from findings in this study may allow for in vivo efficacy testing of ZfFG in the future.

Introdução: estudos com Enfuvirtida (ENF) mostraram que mutações na HR1 da gp41 levam à resistência primária de cepas em pacientes sem tratamento prévio com inibidores de fusão (Derdeyn et al., 2000; Rimsky et. al., 1998; Sista et. al., 2002). Outros, que o uso contínuo de HAART leva à falha virológica (Shafer et. al., 1998; Shafer & Vuitton, 1999). Para a melhor escolha terapêutica recomenda-se usar a Genotipagem do HIV1 (Ministério da Saúde, 2008b; Perez-Elias et. al., 2003; Shafer et. al., 2001). Objetivos: avaliar o perfil de resistência do HIV1 ao ENF pelo sequenciamento da HR1 da gp41 em pacientes sob HAART, sem uso de inibidor de fusão. Realizar fenotipagem virtual da pol do HIV1 em trinta e duas cepas com resistência aos NRTI, NtRTI , NNRTI e PI para verificar indicação do ENF. Métodos: investigamos 877 prontuários de pacientes do CRT-DST/AIDS entre 5/2002 a 7/2005 e verificamos que 92 que haviam realizado o Teste de Genotipagem do HIV1 em nosso laboratório, sem tratamento prévio com inibidores de entrada poderiam participar do nosso estudo. O primeiro grupo, com 60 pacientes apresentou cepas sensíveis à pelo menos um antirretroviral (ARV) e o segundo com 32 cujas cepas apresentaram resistência parcial e completa às drogas. A região HR1/HR2 da gp41 foi seqüenciada com o kit Big Dye Terminator vs. 3.1. Alinhamos as seqüências e as comparamos com HXB2 através do programa BioEdit vs.7.0.9.0. As mutações de resistência ao ENF foram determinadas pelo algoritmo Francês (ANRS) e pelo da Universidade de Stanford. Submetemos as sequências ao Virtual Phenotype Assay (Virco, Bélgica) para obtermos a Fenotipagem Virtual. Os subtipos da HR1/HR2 da gp41 e do pol foram determinados por análises filogenéticas e os recombinantes, pelo Simplot v 3.5.1. Resultados: 89(97%) amostras foram seqüenciadas, 2 (2%) não amplificaram e 1 (1%) não tinha material suficiente. Destas, 82 (92%) eram do subtipo B, 6(7%) do F1 e 1(1%), do BF na gp41. No pol, 80(87%) eram B, 4(4%) eram F e 7(8%), eram FB. Três (3%) apresentaram resistência primária ao ENF, determinada pela N42D (1%), N43H (1%) e L44M (1%). Dez amostras tinham os polimorfismos Q39R(10%), N42H(10%), N42R(10%), N42N/S(10%) e N42S(60%). Na HR2, as mutações N126N/K, N126K/Q/E, E137E/K, E137K e S138S/A estavam presentes em 26% das cepas. Apesar das cepas apresentarem resistência aos ARV pelo teste de genotipagem, a fenotipagem virtual mostrou que 10% dos ARV ainda atuavam sobre elas, enquanto que 75% delas apresentaram resistência parcial e 15%, completa às drogas. Conclusão: nosso estudo sugere a introdução do teste de genotipagem da HR1/HR2 da gp41 antes de indicar do ENF em pacientes com falha terapêutica e que a Fenotipagem Virtual pode ser usada para a escolha do melhor esquema antirretroviral que permita uma supressão viral sustentada. / Background: studies using Enfuvirtide (ENF) have showed that mutations in the HR1 (gp41) have been associated with primary resistance in strains of the patients without previous treatment with fusion inhibitors. (Rimsky et. al.,1998; Derdeyn et al.,2000, Sista et. al.,2002). The widespread use of HAART may achieve maximal suppression of the viral load, but the viral rebound may occur, leading to virologic failure (Shafer et. al.,1998; Shafer & Vuitton,1999). To optimize therapeutic choices it is recommended to use the HIV1 Genotypic Assay. Objective: to evaluate the resistance profile in the HR1 in patients submitted to HAART, but naïve entry inhibitors. To make the Virtual Phenotypic Assay in the pol of the HIV1 strains isolated of the 32 patients with resistance to the antiretroviral (ARV) and to verify the possibility of using the ENF. Methods: we investigated 877 handbook patients of the CRT-DST/AIDS from May/2002 to July/2005. We identified 92 naïve patients to entry inhibitors included in our cohort to do genotypic assay; they were included in our research. The first group was composed by 60 persons with sensible strains to only one ARV. The second, with 32 presented strains with resistance to all ARV. HR1/HR2 was sequenced (ABIPrism BigDye Terminator vs 3.1). Bioedit Software vs.7.0.9.0 was used to compare sequences with the HIVHXB2. The resistance mutations to ENF were analyzed using French ANRS and Stanford HIV Drug Resistance Algorithm. The results by Virtual Phenotype Assay of 32 patients that presented regimen failure by Genotypic Assay predicted HIV phenotypic resistance. Subtype analysis were did by Phylogeny and the recombinants strains results, confirmed by Simplot v.3.5.1. Results: 89(97%) out of 92 samples were sequenced. Two of them (2%) could not be amplified and one (1%) we did not have enough material to use. In the HR1/HR2 82(92%) of the samples were typed as B, 6(7%), as F and 1(1%) as FB. In the pol 80(87%) were classified as B, 4(4%), as F and 7(8%) as FB. According to algorithms used, 3(3%) out of 89 ENF naïve patients presented complete resistance to this drug. One virus harbored the N42D mutation (1%), another, the N43H(1%) and the other one the L44M(1%). In 10 samples we observed the polymorphisms Q39R(1%), N42H(1%), N42R(1%), N42N/S(1%) and N42S(7%). In the HR2 domain the substitutions N126N/K, N126K/Q/E, E137E/K, E137K and S138S/A were present in 26% of the samples. Although strains presented resistance to the ARV by Genotypic Assay, in the Virtual Phenotypic Assay we verified that 10% of the drugs had some effect upon them. 75% of the strains presented partial and 15% completed resistance to ARV. Conclusion: it is important to introduce the HR1/HR2 genotyping test to verify resistance mutations to ENF before indicating this drug to patients with virologic failure. The virtual phenotypic assay can be used to select the better combination therapy to obtain viral suppression sustained response.

Introdução: estudos com Enfuvirtida (ENF) mostraram que mutações na HR1 da gp41 levam à resistência primária de cepas em pacientes sem tratamento prévio com inibidores de fusão (Derdeyn et al., 2000; Rimsky et. al., 1998; Sista et. al., 2002). Outros, que o uso contínuo de HAART leva à falha virológica (Shafer et. al., 1998; Shafer & Vuitton, 1999). Para a melhor escolha terapêutica recomenda-se usar a Genotipagem do HIV1 (Ministério da Saúde, 2008b; Perez-Elias et. al., 2003; Shafer et. al., 2001). Objetivos: avaliar o perfil de resistência do HIV1 ao ENF pelo sequenciamento da HR1 da gp41 em pacientes sob HAART, sem uso de inibidor de fusão. Realizar fenotipagem virtual da pol do HIV1 em trinta e duas cepas com resistência aos NRTI, NtRTI , NNRTI e PI para verificar indicação do ENF. Métodos: investigamos 877 prontuários de pacientes do CRT-DST/AIDS entre 5/2002 a 7/2005 e verificamos que 92 que haviam realizado o Teste de Genotipagem do HIV1 em nosso laboratório, sem tratamento prévio com inibidores de entrada poderiam participar do nosso estudo. O primeiro grupo, com 60 pacientes apresentou cepas sensíveis à pelo menos um antirretroviral (ARV) e o segundo com 32 cujas cepas apresentaram resistência parcial e completa às drogas. A região HR1/HR2 da gp41 foi seqüenciada com o kit Big Dye Terminator vs. 3.1. Alinhamos as seqüências e as comparamos com HXB2 através do programa BioEdit vs.7.0.9.0. As mutações de resistência ao ENF foram determinadas pelo algoritmo Francês (ANRS) e pelo da Universidade de Stanford. Submetemos as sequências ao Virtual Phenotype Assay (Virco, Bélgica) para obtermos a Fenotipagem Virtual. Os subtipos da HR1/HR2 da gp41 e do pol foram determinados por análises filogenéticas e os recombinantes, pelo Simplot v 3.5.1. Resultados: 89(97%) amostras foram seqüenciadas, 2 (2%) não amplificaram e 1 (1%) não tinha material suficiente. Destas, 82 (92%) eram do subtipo B, 6(7%) do F1 e 1(1%), do BF na gp41. No pol, 80(87%) eram B, 4(4%) eram F e 7(8%), eram FB. Três (3%) apresentaram resistência primária ao ENF, determinada pela N42D (1%), N43H (1%) e L44M (1%). Dez amostras tinham os polimorfismos Q39R(10%), N42H(10%), N42R(10%), N42N/S(10%) e N42S(60%). Na HR2, as mutações N126N/K, N126K/Q/E, E137E/K, E137K e S138S/A estavam presentes em 26% das cepas. Apesar das cepas apresentarem resistência aos ARV pelo teste de genotipagem, a fenotipagem virtual mostrou que 10% dos ARV ainda atuavam sobre elas, enquanto que 75% delas apresentaram resistência parcial e 15%, completa às drogas. Conclusão: nosso estudo sugere a introdução do teste de genotipagem da HR1/HR2 da gp41 antes de indicar do ENF em pacientes com falha terapêutica e que a Fenotipagem Virtual pode ser usada para a escolha do melhor esquema antirretroviral que permita uma supressão viral sustentada. / Background: studies using Enfuvirtide (ENF) have showed that mutations in the HR1 (gp41) have been associated with primary resistance in strains of the patients without previous treatment with fusion inhibitors. (Rimsky et. al.,1998; Derdeyn et al.,2000, Sista et. al.,2002). The widespread use of HAART may achieve maximal suppression of the viral load, but the viral rebound may occur, leading to virologic failure (Shafer et. al.,1998; Shafer & Vuitton,1999). To optimize therapeutic choices it is recommended to use the HIV1 Genotypic Assay. Objective: to evaluate the resistance profile in the HR1 in patients submitted to HAART, but naïve entry inhibitors. To make the Virtual Phenotypic Assay in the pol of the HIV1 strains isolated of the 32 patients with resistance to the antiretroviral (ARV) and to verify the possibility of using the ENF. Methods: we investigated 877 handbook patients of the CRT-DST/AIDS from May/2002 to July/2005. We identified 92 naïve patients to entry inhibitors included in our cohort to do genotypic assay; they were included in our research. The first group was composed by 60 persons with sensible strains to only one ARV. The second, with 32 presented strains with resistance to all ARV. HR1/HR2 was sequenced (ABIPrism BigDye Terminator vs 3.1). Bioedit Software vs.7.0.9.0 was used to compare sequences with the HIVHXB2. The resistance mutations to ENF were analyzed using French ANRS and Stanford HIV Drug Resistance Algorithm. The results by Virtual Phenotype Assay of 32 patients that presented regimen failure by Genotypic Assay predicted HIV phenotypic resistance. Subtype analysis were did by Phylogeny and the recombinants strains results, confirmed by Simplot v.3.5.1. Results: 89(97%) out of 92 samples were sequenced. Two of them (2%) could not be amplified and one (1%) we did not have enough material to use. In the HR1/HR2 82(92%) of the samples were typed as B, 6(7%), as F and 1(1%) as FB. In the pol 80(87%) were classified as B, 4(4%), as F and 7(8%) as FB. According to algorithms used, 3(3%) out of 89 ENF naïve patients presented complete resistance to this drug. One virus harbored the N42D mutation (1%), another, the N43H(1%) and the other one the L44M(1%). In 10 samples we observed the polymorphisms Q39R(1%), N42H(1%), N42R(1%), N42N/S(1%) and N42S(7%). In the HR2 domain the substitutions N126N/K, N126K/Q/E, E137E/K, E137K and S138S/A were present in 26% of the samples. Although strains presented resistance to the ARV by Genotypic Assay, in the Virtual Phenotypic Assay we verified that 10% of the drugs had some effect upon them. 75% of the strains presented partial and 15% completed resistance to ARV. Conclusion: it is important to introduce the HR1/HR2 genotyping test to verify resistance mutations to ENF before indicating this drug to patients with virologic failure. The virtual phenotypic assay can be used to select the better combination therapy to obtain viral suppression sustained response.