Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / Immobilized enzymes provide many advantages when compared to the usage of their free forms. Among these ones, remarkable advantages are the possibility of the biocatalyst reusability, easy separation at the end of the process, its usage in continuous way and the enhancement of its stability. This work was performed aiming the immobilization of the α-galactosidase enzyme from Aspergillus niger in ion exchange resin and the evaluation of its catalytic activity. Firstly, tests were performed in five different resins: Amberlite 252-Na, Dowex Marathon A, Dowex Marathon C, Duolite A-568 e Duolite S-761. According to the results, Duolite A-568 was chosen as the best support. Therefore, studies were done aiming the optimization of the immobilization process in this resin. Glutaraldehyde 1% (v/v) was used before the enzyme adsorption process and it enhanced the operational stability of the immobilized enzyme. Preliminary tests did not showed difference for the immobilization process at the temperatures of 25 and 40°C. A full factorial design and a central composite design were performed to study the best immobilization conditions varying the pH, the α-galactosidase concentration and the immobilization time. The results led to use the following immobilization conditions: pH 4.5; 15 g/L of α-galactosidase and 3 hours of immobilization. The temperature of maximum activity occurred at 60°C for both free and immobilized enzyme. The activation energy calculated by linear adjustment of Arrhenius equation was 5.66 kcal/mol for soluble α-galactosidase and 4.48 kcal/mol for immobilized α-galactosidase. The optimum pH range obtained for free enzyme was 4.0-5.0 and for immobilized enzyme it was 3.0-6.0. The immobilization process improved the α-galactosidase activity in alkaline pHs. Analysis of pH stability showed that both forms of enzyme were resistant for the pH ranges studied (3.5 to 7.5 for free and 3.0 to 8.0 for immobilized). However, the thermal stability of the biocatalyst immobilized in the support decreased. The kinetic studies without inhibition showed closed values of maximum speed (Vmax) for both enzyme forms (194.5 U for free and 187.7 U for immobilized). Although, the Michaelis-Menten constant (Km) of immobilized enzyme was higher than the free one (18.8 and 12.5 g/L, respectively). The hydrolysis reaction of raffinose was inhibited by the addition of the reaction products, sucrose and galactose, and the results of inhibition by galactose pointed for the competitive inhibition type. Then, storage tests of immobilized α-galactosidase showed that the enzyme maintained its activity even after 145 days when kept at the temperature of 4°C. / O uso de enzimas imobilizadas proporciona muitas vantagens em relação ao seu uso na forma livre. Dentre estas vantagens se destacam a possibilidade de reutilização do biocatalisador, a sua fácil separação ao final do processo, a utilização em modo contínuo e o aumento de sua estabilidade. Este trabalho foi desenvolvido com o objetivo de imobilizar a enzima α-galactosidase de Aspergillus niger em resina de troca iônica e avaliar a sua atividade catalítica. Inicialmente, foram feitos testes preliminares de imobilização em 5 tipos de resinas: Amberlite 252-Na, Dowex Marathon A, Dowex Marathon C, Duolite A-568 e Duolite S-761. Pelos resultados obtidos, Duolite A-568 foi selecionada como melhor suporte e, portanto, estudos foram feitos para a otimização do processo de imobilização nesta resina. Glutaraldeído na concentração de 1% (v/v) foi utilizado anteriormente ao processo de adsorção da enzima e melhorou a estabilidade operacional da α-galactosidase imobilizada. Testes preliminares não indicaram diferença do processo de imobilização para temperaturas de 25 e 40°C. Realizou-se um planejamento fatorial completo e um planejamento composto central para estudar as melhores condições de imobilização variando-se o pH, concentração de α-galactosidase e tempo de imobilização. Os resultados obtidos levaram a utilizar as seguintes condições de imobilização: pH 4,5, concentração de α-galactosidase de 15 g/L e tempo de imobilização de 3 horas. A temperatura de máxima atividade enzimática foi 60°C tanto para a enzima livre quanto imobilizada. O valor da energia de ativação encontrado pelo ajuste linear da equação de Arrhenius foi de 5,66 kcal/mol para α-galactosidase solúvel e 4,48 kcal/mol para α-galactosidase imobilizada. A faixa de pH ótimo obtido para a enzima livre foi 4,0-6,0 e para a enzima imobilizada foi 3,0-6,0. O processo de imobilização melhorou a atividade da α-galactosidase para pHs mais alcalinos. A análise de resistência ao pH mostrou que ambas as formas da enzima foram resistentes para as faixas estudadas (3,5 a 7,5 para livre e 3,0 a 8,0 para imobilizada). No entanto, a resistência térmica do biocatalisador retido no suporte foi menor. O estudo cinético sem inibição apresentou valores de velocidade máxima (Vmáx) próximos para as duas formas da α-galactosidase (194,5 U para livre e 187,7 U para imobilizada), porém o Km da forma imobilizada foi maior que o da livre (18,8 g/L e 12, 5 g/L de rafinose, respectivamente). A reação de hidrólise da rafinose foi inibida pela adição dos produtos da reação, sacarose e galactose, sendo que os resultados de inibição por galactose apontam para o tipo de inibição competitiva Por fim, testes de estocagem da α-galactosidase imobilizada mostraram que a enzima manteve sua atividade mesmo após 145 dias mantida a temperatura de 4°C. / Mestre em Engenharia Química

Glycosidases (EC 3.2.1.) alias glycoside hydrolases are enzymes that catalyze the cleavage of a glycosidic bond between two carbohydrates or between a carbohydrate and an aglycone. Under suitable conditions (especially reduction of water activity in the reaction mixture), these enzymes are also able to synthesize a glycosidic bond. By targeted mutagenesis of the catalytic centre of the enzymes, it is possible to suppress or completely abolish their hydrolytic activity. Enzyme synthesis using glycosidases makes it possible to prepare bioactive galactosides, for example galectin ligands. The present work deals mainly with β-galactosidase from Bacillus circulans, its recombinant expression and mutagenesis. In the first part of the work, the commercially prepared plasmid of -galactosidase from B. circulans isoform A that I designed was used for recombinant expression in E. coli. It was necessary to optimize the conditions of the enzyme production. As it is a large protein (189 kDa), the expression vector pCOLD II and cold production at 15 ř C were used. The enzyme is specific for the formation of the β-1,4 glycosidic bond and has been used to synthesize complex tri- and tetrasaccharide ligands that cannot be prepared with a crude commercial preparation containing undesirable enzyme activities....

The two techniques aqueoustwo-phase partitioning and expanded bed adsorption that bothare suitable for primary protein recovery were studied. Most ofthe work was focused on partition in aqueous two-phase systemsand in particular on the possibility to effect the partitionbehaviour by fusion of short peptide tags or protein domains tothe target protein. The partitioning of fusionproteins between different variants of the domain tag Z and thenaturally occurring protein DNA Klenow polymerase were studiedin Breox/Reppal aqueous two-phase systems. Most studies wereperformed with cell homogenate. The Breox/Reppal system was infocus because if the fusion protein can be partitioned to theBreox-rich top phase the next step can be a thermoseparatingaqueous two-phase system. When the Breox phase is heated to50°C it switches from a one-phase system to a two-phasesystem resulting in an almost pure water rich top phase andhighly concentrated Breox-rich bottom phase. The Breox can thenbe reused and the protein recovered from the water phase. TheZ-domain was genetically modified in different ways to Zbasic1, Zacid2and Ztrp12and fused to the Klenow protein to try toenhance partitioning to the Breox-rich phase. From theexperiments it was not possible to observe any effects on thepartition behaviour irrespectively of tested properties of thedomain tag. Despite the absence of domain tag effects highK-values, i.e. partition to the Breox-rich top phase, wereobserved in the Breox/Reppal system. However, the proteinK-values seemed to be rather sensitive to the cell homogenateload and showed a tendency to decrease with increased cellhomogenate load. Also increased phosphate concentration reducedthe K-values. The partitioning of cell debris also seemed todependent on the cell homogenate load. At higher homogenateload (&lt;=20g DW/L) clear Breox-rich top phases were observedwith the cell debris collected in Reppal-rich bottomphases. Two different tetrapeptides,AlaTrpTrpPro and AlaIleIlePro were inserted near the C-terminusof the protein ZZT0. The Trp-rich peptide unit stronglyincreased both the partitioning of ZZT0 into the poly(ethyleneglycol) (PEG)-rich phase in a PEG/potassium phosphate aqueoustwo-phase system and its retention on PEG and propylhydrophobic interaction chromatographic columns with potassiumphosphate as eluent in isocratic systems. Both the partitioningand the retention increased with increasing number of Trp-richpeptide units inserted into ZZT0. Insertion of Ile-richtetrapeptide units affected the partitioning and retention to amuch lesser extent. Partition and modelling data also indicateda folding of inserted Trp and Ile tetrapeptide units, probablyto minimise their water contact. It was also investigated howto predict the partitioning of proteins in isoelectricPEG/phosphate aqueous two-phase systems. The capture ofß-galactosidase fromE. colicell homogentate (50g DW/L) by metal chelatexpanded bed adsorption was studied. These experiments showedthat capture, with a certain degree of selectivity, andclarification of ß-galactosidase could be achieved from acell homogenate. However, a rather low recovery of about 35 %was obtained at a capacity of 0.25mg/mL of gel. Thus, severalparameters remain to be optimised like the load buffercomposition and the cell homogenate load. <b>Keywords:</b>E. coli, aqueous two-phase systems, fusion proteins,hydrophobic interaction chromatography, expanded bedadsorption, ß-galactosidase, Klenow polymerase, Z-domain,peptide tags / NR 20140805

GM1 gangliosidosis is a lysosomal storage disorder caused by a deficiency in the catabolizing enzyme β-galactosidase (βgal). This leads to accumulation of GM1-ganglioside (GM1) in the lysosome inducing ER stress and cell death. GM1 gangliosidosis is primarily a disorder of the central nervous system (CNS) with peripheral organ involvement. In this work we report two major findings, 1) systemic treatment of GM1 gangliosidosis with an adenoassociated virus (AAV9) encoding mouse-βgal (mβgal) in a GM1 gangliosidosis mouse model (βGal-/-), and 2) an investigation into an intracranial injection of a therapeutic AAVrh8 encoding mβgal. Systemic treatment of GM1 gangliosidosis with AAV9 resulted in a moderate expression of enzyme in the CNS, reduction of GM1 storage, significant retention of motor function and a significant increase in lifespan. Interestingly, the therapeutic effect was more robust in females. Intracranial injections of AAVrh8 vector expressing high levels of βgal resulted in enzyme spread throughout the brain, significant retention of motor function and a significant increase in lifespan. Histological alterations were also found at the injection site in both βGal-/- and normal animals. We constructed a series of vectors with a range of decreasing enzyme expression levels to investigate the cause for the unanticipated result. Microarrays were performed on the injection site and we showed that a lower expressing AAVrh8-mβgal vector mitigated the negative response. Intracranial injection of this newly developed vector was shown to clear lysosomal storage throughout the CNS of βGal-/- mice. Taken together, these studies indicate that a combined systemic and fine-tuned intracranial approach may be the most effective in clearing lysosomal storage completely in the CNS while providing therapeutic benefit to the periphery.

Insulin regulated aminopeptidase (IRAP) was first identified in fat and muscle cells where it is believed to regulate GLUT4 translocation. It has since been found to be behind a variety of functions, many not yet fully understood. Preliminary research from Monash University suggested that IRAP may play a role in cellular senescence. Senescence is a term that describes arrested cell division and is a tumor repressive mechanism. Senescent cells have been shown to secrete, among other things, the growth hormone TGFβ1, which in turn plays an important role in the cell differentiation of fibroblasts to myofibroblasts. The potential link between IRAP and senescence was the basis of this work. Senescent fibroblasts from three different passages (n=3) in the BJ3 cell-line were cultured and treated with different IRAP inhibitors; ANG-4, AL06 and HFI-419 which were all compared to an untreated control group. They were marked with a β-galactosidase stain, a senescent cellmarker, and imaged. The study demonstrated that the IRAP inhibitors led to a certain decrease in % of senescent cells compared to the control groups. However, this reduction was not considered statistically significant. Similarly, inhibition of the enzyme did not indicate any influence over the differentiation of the cells. The lack of effect could be due to chance based on the low number of sample size, or the condition of the cells used in the trial as they were partially immortalized BJ fibroblasts well beyond the passage of their intended use. In order to further demonstrate an association between IRAP and senescence, further trials are required. / Insulin reglerad aminopeptidas (IRAP) introducerades till en början som ett markörprotein. Man har sedan dess funnit att den står bakom en rad olika funktioner, många ännu inte  fullt klarlagda. Preliminär forskning från laboratoriet i Monash University tydde på att IRAP kan ha en koppling till senescerande fibroblaster. Senescence är en term som beskriver upphörd celldelning och är en tumörrepressiv mekanism. Senescerande celler har påvisats utsekrera bland annat tillväxthormonet TGFβ1, som i sin tur spelar en viktig roll i celldifferentieringenav fibroblaster till myofibroblaster. Den potentiella kopplingen mellan IRAP och senescence låg som grund till detta arbete. Senescerande fibroblaster från tre olika kulturer (n=3) i BJ3-cellinjen odlades och behandlades med olika IRAP-inhibitorer; ANG-4, AL06 och HFI-419 som alla jämfördes med en kontrollgrupp. Därefter markerades de med en β-galaktosidas-markör, en markör för senescerande celler, och mikroskoperades. Studien påvisade att IRAP-inhibitorerna ledde till en viss procentuell minskning av senescerande celler jämfört med kontrollgrupperna. Dock bedömdes inte denna minskning som statistiskt signifikant i studien. Likväl fann man ingen procentuell minskning av differentierade fibroblaster. Hypotetiskt sett skulle man vilja se att reduktionen av senescerande celler motsvarade en nedreglering av TGFβ1-proteiner. Eftersom närvaron av TGFβ1 tros spela en ledande roll i celldifferentiering till myofibroblastfenotypen, bör den procentuella mängden differentierade cellerna minska med inhibitorbehandlingarna. Den bristande påverkan av enzyminhibitionen kan bero på en rad olika faktorer. Cellerna som användes under försökets gång var väl bortom deras brukliga användningscykel. För att vidare påvisa ett potentiellt samband mellan IRAP och senescence behöver vidare försök utföras.

Fabry disease (FD) is an X-linked recessive lysosomal storage disorder (LSD) known to affect approximately 1 in every 40,000 males, and a smaller number of females. FD results from a deficiency of functional α-galactosidase (α-GAL), which leads to the accumulation of terminally α-galactosylated substrates in the lysosome. The predominant treatment is Enzyme Replacement Therapy (ERT), requiring the regular infusion of recombinant human α-GAL. More than half of individuals receiving ERT experience a range of adverse infusion reactions, and it has been reported that as many as 88% of patients receiving ERT develop neutralizing IgG antibodies against the drug. In aim of designing a non-immunogenic treatment candidate for Fabry disease ERT, we have engineered the active sites of α-GAL and another homologous family 27 exoglycosylase named α-N-acetylgalactosaminidase (α-NAGAL) to have interconverted substrate specificities. 11 of 13 active site residues are conserved between these two enzymes, and we have shown that their substrate specificities can be interconverted by mutating the two non-conserved active-site residues. We report the kinetic properties of these two mutants along with wild type controls, and use western blotting to show that both mutant enzymes retain their respective wild type enzyme antigenicity. Structural data obtained by X-ray crystallography on the α-GAL mutant (called α-GALSA ) reveals the mechanism by which substrate specificity is dictated between these two proteins, and provides explanations for the mutant’s reduced catalytic efficiency.

A doença de Fabry (DF, OMIM 301500) é uma doença lisossômica de depósito de herança ligada ao cromossomo X causada por mutações no gene GLA que levam à tradução da enzima lissomal α-galactosidase A (α-gal A, EC 3.2.1.22) com atividade deficiente ou nula. Como consequência, os substratos dessa enzima (majoritariamente globotriaosilceramida – Gb3 - e globotriaosilesfingosina – liso-Gb3) acumulam-se em diversos tecidos e fluidos corporais dos pacientes com DF. Estudos indicam que inflamação, estresse oxidativo e nitrosativo podem estar envolvidos na fisipatologia da DF, que ainda não está completamente esclarecida. Foi descrito previamente um aumento de parâmetros inflamatórios e próoxidantes em pacientes com DF durante a terapia de reposição enzimática (TRE), todavia se faz necessário avaliar tais parâmetros antes do início da TRE. Através de ensaios in vivo e in vitro em amostras de sangue e de urina de pacientes com DF, avaliamos alterações de estado redox, dano oxidativo a biomoléculas (incluindo lipídeos, proteínas e DNA) e níveis urinários de Gb3. No intuito de investigar os efeitos biológicos do mais recente biomarcador proposto para a DF, o liso-Gb3, realizamos ensaios in vitro em células embrionárias de epitélio renal humano (HEK-293T). Demonstramos, pela primeira vez, aumento de dano ao DNA em pacientes com DF. Ainda, observamos aumento de geração de espécies reativas nas mesmas amostras (através da sonda diclorofluoresceina - DCF) e, através do ensaio cometa com endonucleases, verificamos que o dano ao DNA é de natureza oxidativa em purinas nesses pacientes. Para avaliar a capacidade de reparo de DNA frente a um insulto oxidativo, realizamos o ensaio de desafio com peróxido de hidrogênio (H2O2), o qual demonstrou que os pacientes possuiam reparo aumentado (provavelmente como resposta ao estresse crônico), porém não suficientemente eficaz para reduzir o dano oxidativo basal a purinas a nível de indivíduos saudáveis. Observamos também que pacientes com DF antes de iniciar a TRE já possuíam níveis aumentados de lipoperoxidação (através da medida de espécies reativas ao ácido tiobarbitúrico – TBARS - e malondialdeído – MDA) e de estresse nitrosativo (medido através de nitrato e nitrito urinários), bem como desequilíbrios no sistema redox da glutationa (GSH - principal antioxidante intracelular, avaliado através da medida de GSH e da atividade das enzimas glutationa redutase, GR, e glutationa peroxidase, GPx). Após a TRE de longa duração (aproximadamente cinco anos), a lipoperoxidação e o estresse nitrosativo continuaram aumentados, porém o metabolismo da GSH foi normalizado a nível de indivíduos saudáveis (provavelmente também como resposta adaptativa ao estresse). Os níveis urinários de Gb3 diminuíram com a TRE, porém permaneceram ainda significativamente aumentados em relação aos controles. Concentrações de liso-Gb3 similares às encontradas no plasma de pacientes com DF tiveram efeito citotóxico significativo nas células renais, causaram dano ao DNA (incluindo dano oxidativo a purinas e pirimidinas) e induziram aumento na atividade da enzima antioxidante catalase (CAT) e na expressão da poli(ADP-ribose) polimerase 1 (PARP-1, enzima-chave no reparo de dano ao DNA por excisão de bases - BER). Por fim, analisando em conjunto os dados in vitro, podemos sugerir um mecanismo de ação para o liso-Gb3 no qual o H2O2, espécie reativa de conhecido papel sinalizador, atua como mediador. O H2O2 também ocupa papel central no mecanismo sugerido através dos estudos in vivo, de modo que os achados são complementares entre si e fornecem novos dados acerca da fisiopatologia da DF que podem ser úteis a estudos futuros na busca de terapias complementares à TRE, necessárias para a melhora clínica e de qualidade de vida dos pacientes com DF. / Fabry disease (FD, OMIM 301500) is an X-linked lysosomal storage disorder caused by mutations in GLA gene that lead to translated lysosomal enzyme α-galactosidade A (α-gal A, EC 3.2.1.22) with deficient or absent activity. Consequently, the enzyme’s substrates (mainly globotriaosylceramide – Gb3 and glotriaosylsphingosine – lyso-Gb3) accumulate in various tissues and body fluids of FD patients. Studies have pointed that inflammation, oxidative and nitrosative stress may be involved in FD pathophysiology, which is not completely known. It was previously described an increase of inflammatory and prooxidative parameters in FD patients during enzyme replacement therapy (ERT), although it is necessary to evaluate these parameters before the beginnig of ERT. Using in vivo and in vitro assays in blood and urine samples of FD patients, we evaluated abnormalities of redox status, oxidative damage to biomolecules (including lipids, proteins and DNA) and Gb3 urinary levels. In order to investigate the biological effects of the latest described biomarker for FD, lyso-Gb3, we performed in vitro assays in human embryonic kidney epithelial cells (HEK-293T). We demonstrated, for the first time, increased DNA damage in FD patients. Then, we observed increased reactive species generation (by dichlorofluorescein – DCF - probe) in the same samples and, by comet assay with endonucleases, we verified that DNA damage has an oxidative origin in purines in these patients. In order to evaluate repair capacity towards an oxidative insult, a challenge assay with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) was performed, which demonstrated that patients had increased repair (probably as response to chronic stress), but not sufficiently effective to reduce basal oxidative damage in purines to healthy individuals’ levels. We also observed that FD patients even before initiating ERT already had increased lipid peroxidation levels (by thiobarbituric acid reactive species - TBARS - and malondialdehyde - MDA content) and nitrosative stress (by urinary nitrate and nitrite), as well as imbalances in glutathione (GSH) redox system (GSH – the main intracellular antioxidant, evaluated by GSH content and glutathione reductase, GR, and glutathione peroxidase, GPx, enzyme activities). After long-term ERT (approximately five years), lipid peroxidation and nitrosative stress remained increased, although GSH metabolism was restored to the level of healthy subjects (also probably as an adaptive response to stress). Gb3 urinary levels decreased after ERT, but remained already increased when compared to controls. Lyso-Gb3 levels similar to that found in plasma of FD patients caused significative cytotoxic effect on kidney cells, caused DNA damage (including oxidative damage to purines and pyrimidines) and induced increase in the antioxidant enzyme catalase (CAT) activity and poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1) expression (key enzyme in DNA base excision repair). To conclude, analysing together the in vitro data, we could suggest a mechanism of action to lyso-Gb3 in which H2O2, reactive specie with well known signaling function, acts as a mediator. H2O2 has also a central role in the mechanism proponed by the in vivo studies, so that the findings are complementary and provide new data about FD pathophysiology that could be useful to future studies looking for complementary therapies to ERT, necessary to improvement in clinical aspects and life quality of FD patients.

This thesis deals with the design, formation and evaluation of dynamic systems constructed by means of sulfur-containing reversible reactions, in organic and aqueous media and under mild conditions. In a first part, the synthesis of thioglycoside derivatives, constituting the biologically relevant starting components of the dynamic systems, is described. In addition, the pD-profile of the mutarotation process in aqueous media for a series of 1-thioaldoses is reported and revealed an astonishing beta-anomeric preference for all the carbohydrate analogs under acidic or neutral conditions. In a second part, the phosphine-catalyzed or -mediated disulfide metathesis for dynamic system generation in organic or aqueous media is presented, respectively. The direct in situ 1H STD-NMR resolution of a dynamic carbohydrate system in the presence of a target protein (Concanavalin A) proved the suitability and compatibility of such disulfide metathesis protocols for the discovery of biologically relevant ligands. In a third part, hemithioacetal formation is demonstrated as a new and efficient reversible reaction for the spontaneous generation of a dynamic system, despite a virtual character of the component associations in basic aqueous media. The direct in situ 1H STD-NMR identification of the best dynamic beta-galactosidase inhibitors from the dynamic HTA system was performed and the results were confirmed by inhibition studies. Thus, the HTA product formed from the reaction between 1-thiogalactopyranose and a pyridine carboxaldehyde derivative provided the best dynamic inhibitor. In a fourth and final part, a dynamic drug design strategy, where the best inhibitors from the aforementioned dynamic HTA system were used as model for the design of non-dynamic (or “static”) beta-galactosidase inhibitors, is depicted. Inhibition studies disclosed potent leads among the set of ligands. / QC 20100621

A doença de Fabry (DF, OMIM 301500) é uma doença lisossômica de depósito de herança ligada ao cromossomo X causada por mutações no gene GLA que levam à tradução da enzima lissomal α-galactosidase A (α-gal A, EC 3.2.1.22) com atividade deficiente ou nula. Como consequência, os substratos dessa enzima (majoritariamente globotriaosilceramida – Gb3 - e globotriaosilesfingosina – liso-Gb3) acumulam-se em diversos tecidos e fluidos corporais dos pacientes com DF. Estudos indicam que inflamação, estresse oxidativo e nitrosativo podem estar envolvidos na fisipatologia da DF, que ainda não está completamente esclarecida. Foi descrito previamente um aumento de parâmetros inflamatórios e próoxidantes em pacientes com DF durante a terapia de reposição enzimática (TRE), todavia se faz necessário avaliar tais parâmetros antes do início da TRE. Através de ensaios in vivo e in vitro em amostras de sangue e de urina de pacientes com DF, avaliamos alterações de estado redox, dano oxidativo a biomoléculas (incluindo lipídeos, proteínas e DNA) e níveis urinários de Gb3. No intuito de investigar os efeitos biológicos do mais recente biomarcador proposto para a DF, o liso-Gb3, realizamos ensaios in vitro em células embrionárias de epitélio renal humano (HEK-293T). Demonstramos, pela primeira vez, aumento de dano ao DNA em pacientes com DF. Ainda, observamos aumento de geração de espécies reativas nas mesmas amostras (através da sonda diclorofluoresceina - DCF) e, através do ensaio cometa com endonucleases, verificamos que o dano ao DNA é de natureza oxidativa em purinas nesses pacientes. Para avaliar a capacidade de reparo de DNA frente a um insulto oxidativo, realizamos o ensaio de desafio com peróxido de hidrogênio (H2O2), o qual demonstrou que os pacientes possuiam reparo aumentado (provavelmente como resposta ao estresse crônico), porém não suficientemente eficaz para reduzir o dano oxidativo basal a purinas a nível de indivíduos saudáveis. Observamos também que pacientes com DF antes de iniciar a TRE já possuíam níveis aumentados de lipoperoxidação (através da medida de espécies reativas ao ácido tiobarbitúrico – TBARS - e malondialdeído – MDA) e de estresse nitrosativo (medido através de nitrato e nitrito urinários), bem como desequilíbrios no sistema redox da glutationa (GSH - principal antioxidante intracelular, avaliado através da medida de GSH e da atividade das enzimas glutationa redutase, GR, e glutationa peroxidase, GPx). Após a TRE de longa duração (aproximadamente cinco anos), a lipoperoxidação e o estresse nitrosativo continuaram aumentados, porém o metabolismo da GSH foi normalizado a nível de indivíduos saudáveis (provavelmente também como resposta adaptativa ao estresse). Os níveis urinários de Gb3 diminuíram com a TRE, porém permaneceram ainda significativamente aumentados em relação aos controles. Concentrações de liso-Gb3 similares às encontradas no plasma de pacientes com DF tiveram efeito citotóxico significativo nas células renais, causaram dano ao DNA (incluindo dano oxidativo a purinas e pirimidinas) e induziram aumento na atividade da enzima antioxidante catalase (CAT) e na expressão da poli(ADP-ribose) polimerase 1 (PARP-1, enzima-chave no reparo de dano ao DNA por excisão de bases - BER). Por fim, analisando em conjunto os dados in vitro, podemos sugerir um mecanismo de ação para o liso-Gb3 no qual o H2O2, espécie reativa de conhecido papel sinalizador, atua como mediador. O H2O2 também ocupa papel central no mecanismo sugerido através dos estudos in vivo, de modo que os achados são complementares entre si e fornecem novos dados acerca da fisiopatologia da DF que podem ser úteis a estudos futuros na busca de terapias complementares à TRE, necessárias para a melhora clínica e de qualidade de vida dos pacientes com DF. / Fabry disease (FD, OMIM 301500) is an X-linked lysosomal storage disorder caused by mutations in GLA gene that lead to translated lysosomal enzyme α-galactosidade A (α-gal A, EC 3.2.1.22) with deficient or absent activity. Consequently, the enzyme’s substrates (mainly globotriaosylceramide – Gb3 and glotriaosylsphingosine – lyso-Gb3) accumulate in various tissues and body fluids of FD patients. Studies have pointed that inflammation, oxidative and nitrosative stress may be involved in FD pathophysiology, which is not completely known. It was previously described an increase of inflammatory and prooxidative parameters in FD patients during enzyme replacement therapy (ERT), although it is necessary to evaluate these parameters before the beginnig of ERT. Using in vivo and in vitro assays in blood and urine samples of FD patients, we evaluated abnormalities of redox status, oxidative damage to biomolecules (including lipids, proteins and DNA) and Gb3 urinary levels. In order to investigate the biological effects of the latest described biomarker for FD, lyso-Gb3, we performed in vitro assays in human embryonic kidney epithelial cells (HEK-293T). We demonstrated, for the first time, increased DNA damage in FD patients. Then, we observed increased reactive species generation (by dichlorofluorescein – DCF - probe) in the same samples and, by comet assay with endonucleases, we verified that DNA damage has an oxidative origin in purines in these patients. In order to evaluate repair capacity towards an oxidative insult, a challenge assay with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) was performed, which demonstrated that patients had increased repair (probably as response to chronic stress), but not sufficiently effective to reduce basal oxidative damage in purines to healthy individuals’ levels. We also observed that FD patients even before initiating ERT already had increased lipid peroxidation levels (by thiobarbituric acid reactive species - TBARS - and malondialdehyde - MDA content) and nitrosative stress (by urinary nitrate and nitrite), as well as imbalances in glutathione (GSH) redox system (GSH – the main intracellular antioxidant, evaluated by GSH content and glutathione reductase, GR, and glutathione peroxidase, GPx, enzyme activities). After long-term ERT (approximately five years), lipid peroxidation and nitrosative stress remained increased, although GSH metabolism was restored to the level of healthy subjects (also probably as an adaptive response to stress). Gb3 urinary levels decreased after ERT, but remained already increased when compared to controls. Lyso-Gb3 levels similar to that found in plasma of FD patients caused significative cytotoxic effect on kidney cells, caused DNA damage (including oxidative damage to purines and pyrimidines) and induced increase in the antioxidant enzyme catalase (CAT) activity and poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1) expression (key enzyme in DNA base excision repair). To conclude, analysing together the in vitro data, we could suggest a mechanism of action to lyso-Gb3 in which H2O2, reactive specie with well known signaling function, acts as a mediator. H2O2 has also a central role in the mechanism proponed by the in vivo studies, so that the findings are complementary and provide new data about FD pathophysiology that could be useful to future studies looking for complementary therapies to ERT, necessary to improvement in clinical aspects and life quality of FD patients.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-08-17T18:39:43Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 4514.pdf: 2385637 bytes, checksum: 89b533535415a993d655f83f1387c6f0 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-06-27 / Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos / The selection of cellulase-producing fungi is one of the possible estrategies for obtaining necessary enzymes to hydrolyze the lignocellulosic material of plant biomass and thereby contribute to the viability of cellulosic ethanol production. The aim of this study was achive a screening of isolated fungi from the Amazon region to assess the production of enzymes related to plant biomass degradation, in order to select a line for production, purification and biochemical, kinetical and and structural biology characterizationof the ß-Galactosidase enzyme. Therefore, this work was undertaken in three stages, first of all it was performed a screening of 40 fungal strains isolated from the Amazon region through the cultivation in solid state fermentation (FES) at 35ºC for 240 hours, using as substrate wheat bran. It was evaluated the production of xylanase, endoglucanase, FPase, pectinase, ß-Glicosidase and total protein, and the fungi that stood out were: P6B2, the best producer of xylanase, P47C3 (Aspergillus niger), the best producer endoglucanase and ß-Glicosidase and P40B3, the best producer of FPase. These three fungi were selected for the second phase of this work for assessment in the production of xylanase, FPase, endoglucanase, ß-Glicosidase and total protein by submerged fermentation (FSm). The fermentation took place for 5 days at 30ºC and 200 rpm with a source of carbon: 1% of wheat bran washed and nutrient medium. The fungi P47C3, which was identified as Aspergillus niger, showed the best production of these enzymes, being selected for the third stage of this project. This last step involved the selection of an enzyme that has not been elucidated its structural biology. Given this fact, we carried out a study of selection of the medium, purification and biochemicalkinetical characterization of ß-Galactosidase. The Aspergillus niger (P47C3) was subjected to submerged for 5 days at 200 rpm at 30ºC. Purification occured in three steps using: ion exchange column SP-Sephadex C-50 and SP TSK-5PW column, and gelfiltration, with the resin Sephacryl S-200. The enzyme ß-Galactosidase showed a molecular weight of 125 kDa, being stable at pH 4,0, with anoptimum temperature of 55ºC. It was evaluated theKmap e Vmáxap of two substrates, PNPG and lactose, being: 2,204 mM-0,285 mM/min and 2,101 mM-0,75mM/min, respectively. The inhibition of hydrolasis of the substrate PNPG by ß-Galactosidase in the presence of galactose inhibitor product showed a Ki value of 5,01 mM. Finally, the ß-Galactosidase was subjected to crystallization conditions, the best conditions occurred in buffer 0,2M Tris- HCl, with the precipitation agent, 12% PEG 4000 at pH 8,6. Therefore, the unpublished protocol for purification of ß-Galactosidase was efficient and it is possible to crystallize this enzyme of isolated fungi from the Amazon region, which showed great potencial for the production of this enzyme and that the future can be used in industrial application and biotechnological innovations. / A seleção de fungos produtores de celulases é uma das possíveis estratégias para a obtenção das enzimas necessárias para hidrolisar o material lignocelulósico da biomassa vegetal e com isso contribuir para a viabilização da produção de etanol celulósico. O objetivo desse trabalho foi realizar um screening dos fungos isolados da região amazônica para a avaliação da produção de enzimas relacionadas à degradação da biomassa vegetal, a fim de selecionar uma linhagem para produção, purificação e caracterização bioquímica, cinética e biologia estrutural da enzima ß-Galactosidase. Dessa forma, esse trabalho foi realizado em três etapas, primeiramente foi realizado um screening de 40 linhagens fúngicas isoladas da região amazônica, através do cultivo em fermentação em estado sólido (FES), a 35°C, por 240 horas, utilizando como substrato o farelo de trigo. Avaliou-se a produção de xilanase, endoglucanase, FPase, pectinase, ßglicosidase e proteínas totais, sendo que os fungos que mais se destacaram foram o: P6B2, melhor produtor de xilanase, P47C3 (Aspergillus niger), melhor produtor de endoglucanase e ß-glicosidase e o P40B3, melhor produtor de FPase. Esses três fungos, foram selecionados para a segunda fase do trabalho para avaliação na produção de xilanase, FPase, endoglucanase, ß-glicosidase e proteínas Totais por fermentação submersa (FSm). A fermentação ocorreu por 5 dias, à 30ºC e 200 rpm tendo como fonte de carbono: 1% de farelo de trigo lavado e meio nutriente. O fungo P47C3, identificado como Aspergillus niger, apresentou melhor produção dessas enzimas, sendo selecionado para a terceira etapa desse projeto. Essa última etapa, envolveu a escolha de uma enzima que não estivesse sua biologia estrutural elucidada. Diante desse fato, realizou-se um estudo de seleção do meio de cultivo, purificação e caracterização bioquimico-cinética da ß-Galactosidase. O fungo Aspergillus niger (P47C3) foi submetido a fermentação submersa, durante 5 dias, à 200 rpm em 30ºC. A purificação ocorreu em três etapas utilizando: colunas de troca iônica SP - Sephadex C-50 e a coluna SP -TSK 5PW; e gel filtração, com a resina Sephacryl S-200. A enzima ß-Galactosidase apresentou uma massa molecular de 125 kDa, sendo estável em pH 4,0, e com temperatura ótima de 55ºC. Avaliou-se a Kmap e Vmáxap de dois substratos, o PNPG e a lactose, sendo: 2,204 mM - 0,285 mM/min e 2,101 mM 0,750 mM/min, respectivamente. A inibição da hidrólise do substrato PNPG pela ß-Galactosidase na presença do produto inibidor galactose apresentou um valor de Ki de 5,01 mM. Por fim, a ß-Galactosidase foi submetida a condições de cristalização, as melhores condições ocorreram em tampão 0,2M Tris-HCl, tendo como agente precipitante, PEG 4000 12% em pH 8,6. Portanto, o protocolo inédito de purificação da ß-Galactosidase foi eficiente, sendo possível cristalizar essa enzima do fungo isolado da região amazônica, o qual apresentou grande potencial para a produção dessa enzima e que futuramente possa ser utilizado em aplicações industriais e inovações biotecnológicas.