Today, the air transport industry has become an essential element of global society by its great contributions to the wide exchanges of cultures/people and to the rapid growth in the world economy. However, on the other hand, the adverse impacts on the environment caused by air transport, such as air pollution, noise and climate change, are drawing, increasingly, growing public concern. In order to address the steady growth in air-travel demand in the next decades through an environmentally-friendly way and realise the ACARE 2020 environmental goals, The Clean Sky programme has been launched by European Union over the period 2008 – 2013. The project research, described in this thesis and sponsored by the Clean Sky programme, aims at evaluating the feasibility of reducing the environmental impact of commercial aviation through the introduction of changes in the aircraft operational rules and procedures, as well as the application of the new-generation propfan (open rotor) engine, based on flight trajectory multidisciplinary optimisation and analysis of commercial aircraft. In order to accomplish the above research objectives, a complete methodology to achieve and realise optimum flight trajectories has been initially proposed. Then, 12 component-level models which function as simulating different disciplines, such as aircraft performance, engine performance, engine gaseous emission, and flight noise, have been developed or selected/adopted. Further, nine system-level integration and optimisation models were built. These system-level models simulate flights from Amsterdam Schiphol airport in the Netherlands to Munich airport in Germany flown by different types of aircraft through different flight phases with different optimisation objectives. Finally, detailed investigations into the flight trajectory optimisations were performed, extensive optimisation results were achieved and corresponding description, analysis and comparisons were provided. The main contributions of this work to knowledge broadly comprise the following: 1) the further development regarding the methodology of flight trajectory multidisciplinary optimisation; 2) previous work on aircraft trajectory optimisation has often considered fixed objectives over the complete flight trajectory. This research focused on representative flight phases of a flight mission with different optimisation objectives, namely, noise impact and fuel burn during the departure phase; fuel burn and flight time during en route phase; and noise impact and NOx emission during the arrival phase; 3) this research has extended the current flight trajectory optimisations to turboprop and propfan equipped aircraft. As a result, a relative complete 2D flight trajectory multidisciplinary optimisation spectrum, spanned by primary commercial aircraft types, primary flight phases and primary optimisation objectives of interest, has been built. Although encouraging progress have been achieved, this project research, as with any other research activity, is also only ‘on the way’ rather than coming to the ‘end’ point. There are still many aspects which can be improved further and there is still much new research and exploration which can be investigated further. All these have also been suggested in this thesis.

Submitted by SIMONE SIMÕES AMARAL null (simonesimoessi@gmail.com) on 2017-05-05T16:13:41Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Versão Final.pdf: 7430161 bytes, checksum: 3a44590f9683d726da54963b426f3ee7 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Luiz Galeffi (luizgaleffi@gmail.com) on 2017-05-05T16:16:02Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 amaral_ss_dr_guara.pdf: 7430161 bytes, checksum: 3a44590f9683d726da54963b426f3ee7 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-05-05T16:16:02Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 amaral_ss_dr_guara.pdf: 7430161 bytes, checksum: 3a44590f9683d726da54963b426f3ee7 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-04-12 / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) / Apesar das novas tecnologias de gerenciamento e combate aos incêndios, o fogo em florestas ainda ocorre em grande escala, causando danos ao meio ambiente e à sociedade. Os danos causados pelo fogo são dependentes de fatores como combustível, clima e topografia do terreno. Para minimização e controle dos efeitos causados pelo fogo é importante o estudo de tais fatores. Assim, o objetivo deste trabalho foi analisar a condição que potencializa a propagação do fogo e a emissão de poluentes gasosos. O estudo da condição que potencializa o fogo e suas emissões foi realizado para biomassas de florestas plantadas. Os principais fatores, que afetam o fogo e suas emissões, foram avaliados através de experimentos de laboratório. Os fatores de controle avaliados foram: espécie, percentual de liteira, carga de combustível, irradiância solar, umidade relativa, velocidade do vento e inclinação do terreno. Estes experimentos foram planejados e analisados utilizando a matriz L18 da metodologia de Taguchi. O dispositivo de queima foi adaptado, para que o estudo pudesse ser realizado. As emissões também foram quantificadas para floresta nativa (biomassa da Amazônia), com experimentos conduzidos em campo e em laboratório. Para os níveis dos fatores estabelecidos, em laboratório, a condição encontrada que potencializou a propagação do fogo e a emissão de poluentes gasosos foi a queima de Eucalyptus sp., com aproximadamente 30 % de liteira, carga de 2,5 kg de combustível, nível mínimo de umidade relativa (40 %), velocidade do vento de 3,5 m/s e inclinação do terreno de 30°. A máxima irradiância (1kW/m2) potencializou as emissões gasosas, cujos valores de fator de emissão foram de 1.495±62 g/kg para CO2, 71,52±4,33 g/kg para CO, 1,96±0,78 g/kg para NO e 14,75±3,55 g/kg para UHC. Experimentos conduzidos com a irradiância no nível 1 potencializaram a propagação do fogo. Quando comparados os resultados de queima de biomassa da Amazônia, a queima em campo apresentou valores mais elevados das emissões por hectare, para os compostos parcialmente oxidados. / Despite the new technologies of management and fire fighting, fire in forests still occurs on a large scale, causing damage to the environment and society. The damages caused by the fire are dependent on factors such as fuel, weather, and topography of the land. To minimize and control the effects caused by fire is important the study of such factors. Thus, the objective of this work was to analyze the condition that enhances the spread of fire and the emission of gaseous pollutants. The study of the condition that enhances the fire and their emissions was conducted for biomasses of planted forests. The main factors, which affect the fire, were evaluated through laboratory experiments. The control factors evaluated were: specie, percentage of litter, fuel load, irradiance, relative humidity, wind speed and inclination. These experiments were designed and analyzed using the matrix L18 of Taguchi methodology. The burning device was adapted, so that the study could be performed. The emissions were also quantified to native forest (Amazon biomass), with experiments conducted in the field and in the laboratory. For the levels of the established factors, the condition found that enhanced the spread of fire and the emission of gaseous pollutants was: Eucalyptus sp. burning, with approximately 30% litter, 2.5 kg of fuel load, minimum relative humidity (40%), wind velocity of 3.5 m/s and inclination of 30°. The maximum irradiance (1kW/m2) potentiated the gaseous emissions, whose emission factor values were 1,495 ± 62 g/kg for CO2, 71.52 ± 4.33 g/kg for CO, 1.96 ± 0.78 g/kg for NO and 14.75 ± 3.55 g/kg for UHC. Experiments conducted with irradiance at level 1 enhanced the spread of fire. When the results of the Amazon biomass burning were compared, field burning presented higher emissions per hectare, for partially oxidized compounds. / FAPESP: 2013/21231-0

Today, the air transport industry has become an essential element of global society by its great contributions to the wide exchanges of cultures/people and to the rapid growth in the world economy. However, on the other hand, the adverse impacts on the environment caused by air transport, such as air pollution, noise and climate change, are drawing, increasingly, growing public concern. In order to address the steady growth in air-travel demand in the next decades through an environmentally-friendly way and realise the ACARE 2020 environmental goals, The Clean Sky programme has been launched by European Union over the period 2008 – 2013. The project research, described in this thesis and sponsored by the Clean Sky programme, aims at evaluating the feasibility of reducing the environmental impact of commercial aviation through the introduction of changes in the aircraft operational rules and procedures, as well as the application of the new-generation propfan (open rotor) engine, based on flight trajectory multidisciplinary optimisation and analysis of commercial aircraft. In order to accomplish the above research objectives, a complete methodology to achieve and realise optimum flight trajectories has been initially proposed. Then, 12 component-level models which function as simulating different disciplines, such as aircraft performance, engine performance, engine gaseous emission, and flight noise, have been developed or selected/adopted. Further, nine system-level integration and optimisation models were built. These system-level models simulate flights from Amsterdam Schiphol airport in the Netherlands to Munich airport in Germany flown by different types of aircraft through different flight phases with different optimisation objectives. Finally, detailed investigations into the flight trajectory optimisations were performed, extensive optimisation results were achieved and corresponding description, analysis and comparisons were provided. The main contributions of this work to knowledge broadly comprise the following: 1) the further development regarding the methodology of flight trajectory multidisciplinary optimisation; 2) previous work on aircraft trajectory optimisation has often considered fixed objectives over the complete flight trajectory. This research focused on representative flight phases of a flight mission with different optimisation objectives, namely, noise impact and fuel burn during the departure phase; fuel burn and flight time during en route phase; and noise impact and NOx emission during the arrival phase; 3) this research has extended the current flight trajectory optimisations to turboprop and propfan equipped aircraft. As a result, a relative complete 2D flight trajectory multidisciplinary optimisation spectrum, spanned by primary commercial aircraft types, primary flight phases and primary optimisation objectives of interest, has been built. Although encouraging progress have been achieved, this project research, as with any other research activity, is also only ‘on the way’ rather than coming to the ‘end’ point. There are still many aspects which can be improved further and there is still much new research and exploration which can be investigated further. All these have also been suggested in this thesis.

La pérennité du compostage est cautionnée à une meilleure maîtrise de la qualité des composts ainsi que des émissions gazeuses. Ces deux critères dépendent en partie des conditions de compostage. Néanmoins, le contrôle des émissions gazeuses et des odeurs ne peut se circonscrire à une seule stratégie préventive. L'identification des composés responsables de l'odeur apparaît comme un enjeu permettant d'augmenter l'efficacité des solutions curatives. Cette thèse a eu pour double objectif d'évaluer l'influence des déterminants des procédés de compostage par aération forcée sur la qualité des composts, les émissions gazeuses et les odeurs en compostage et stockage ainsi que d'investiguer les corrélations entre composition chimique (CC) et concentration d'odeur (CO)des gaz émis. Le déchet et le structurant utilisés ont été des boues d'abattoir de porcs et des plaquettes de bois. L'influence des conditions opératoires a été évaluée en réacteur de compostage au regard des critères que sont la stabilisation, l'hygiènisation, le séchage et la conservation de l'azote. Un taux d'aération intermédiaire, un ratio structurant/déchet (S/D) >1 et une granulométrie >10mm semblent être les conditions répondant au mieux aux attentes d'un traitement par compostage. L'étude de l'influence des conditions sur les composés gazeux suspectés les plus contributrices des odeurs a conduit à une caractérisation exhaustive des émissions d'ammoniac, d'hydrogène sulfuré, des mercaptans par piégeage chimique et des COV par TD-GC-MS. L'identification des composés potentiellement contributeurs de l'odeur s'est basée sur le calcul d'unité d'odeur (UO) de chacun des composés i.e. le rapport de leur concentration chimique sur leur seuil olfactif, à leur pic d'émission. Les conditions opératoires générant le moins d'émissions sont un faible taux d'aération, un ratio S/D >1 et une granulométrie >10mm. Le potentiel des conditions opératoire à diminuer les émissions de composés odorants est toutefois limité. Les travaux venant d'être décrits ont été complétés d'une part par des mesures olfactométriques des émissions et leur corrélation à leur CC et d'autre part par la mise en œuvre de simulations de stockage en vue de comparer leurs émissions et odeurs à celles du compostage. Ces caractérisations ont montré que les pics d'odeurs en compostage sont 50 fois supérieurs à ceux du stockage. Deux types de corrélations entre la CC et la CO des gaz issus du compostage et du stockage ont été investiguées. Le premier type présume que la CO correspond à la somme des UO des composés du mélange. Le second suppose que la CO du mélange corresponde à l'UO la plus élevée (UOMAX) parmi l'ensemble des composés du mélange. Une analyse qualitative et quantitative des types de corrélations testés a indiqué qu'UOMAX est plus proche de la CO mesurée. Seuls trois composés, l'hydrogène sulfuré, le méthanethiol et la triméthylamine rendent compte des odeurs mesurées. / Compost sustainability requires a better control of its compost quality and its gaseous emissions. Both were influenced by composting conditions. Nevertheless, controlling gaseous emissions and their odour can’t be assumed by a single preventive approach. The identification of the compounds involved in odour is also a way to improve the efficiency of curatives solutions. This thesis has been the dual objectives to assess the influence of the principal process conditions for the forced aeration composting on compost quality, gaseous emissions and odours during composting and storage, as well as find out a correlation between the chemical composition (CC) and the odour concentration (OC) of the emissions. The waste and the bulking agent used were pig slaughterhouse sludge and wood chips. The influence of the composting process conditions was studied on stabilization, disinfection, drying and nitrogen conservation during composting in pilot reactors. An intermediate rate, a bulking agent/ waste (BA/W) ratio >1 and a particle size >10mm seemed to be the optimal conditions which satisfy composting treatment expectations. The study of the composting process influence on the gaseous compounds supposed as main potential odour contributors led to an gases exhaustive characterizations, including: ammonia, hydrogen sulphide and mercaptans were quantified by chemical traps while TD-GC-MS was used for VOC. Compounds were screened as main odour contributor based on the compute of their odour unit (OU) of each compounds i.e. dividing their chemical concentration by their odour threshold, at their events of peak emission. The composting process conditions which reduced the emissions were, a low aeration rate, a high BA/W ratio and a particle size > 10mm. Composting process conditions had a limited impact on reducing emissions of odorous compounds. Further works were performed for establish a more accurate odour emission evaluation. On a first hand, olfactometric measurements were carried out in order to be correlated with their CC. On a second hand, experiments were designed to simulate storage with a view to compare their emissions and their odours with that in composting. These characterizations showed that the peaks of the odour emissions were found 50 folds higher during composting than during storage. Two types of correlations were investigated between the CC and the OC of gas samples from composting and storage. The first one assumed that, the OC of gas sample was equal to the sum of the OU of every odorous compound. The second one consisted to consider the OC was equal to the highest OU (OUMAX) of the most odorant compound in the sample. Qualitative and quantitative analyses were tested for the both correlation types, indicating that OUMAX is the expression which can provide the most accurate prediction of OC. Only three main odorous compounds were identified: trimethylamine, hydrogen sulphide and methanethiol.

Le secteur industriel du traitement des déchets génère des émissions gazeuses induisant des nuisances odorantes auprès des populations riveraines des installations. Ces effluents gazeux contiennent une grande diversité de composés volatils : oxygénés (acides gras volatils, cétones, aldéhydes, alcools), azotés et soufrés (hydrogène sulfuré (H2S), diméthylsulfure (DMS), diméthyldisulfure (DMDS) et méthanethiol (MT)). Ces effluents gazeux sont traités par un dispositif approprié que sont les bioprocédés. Néanmoins, les seuils de perception des composés odorants et plus particulièrement ceux des composés soufrés, très bas, obligent à atteindre des efficacités d’abattement particulièrement élevées, faute de quoi le résiduel de concentration peut être à l’origine d’un impact notable sur les populations riveraines. L’objectif de cette étude est donc d’améliorer les performances de ces procédés biologiques par la mise en oeuvre de filières de traitement. L’originalité de ce travail est d’évaluer les performances d’épuration d’un mélange de composés soufrés par la mise en oeuvre du couplage de deux procédés biologiques que sont le lit percolateur et le biofiltre.Le premier résultat de ce travail de thèse a consisté à évaluer l’impact du pH sur l’activité de dégradation de composés soufrés en mélange (H2S, DMS et DMDS) en mettant en oeuvre des microcosmes. La valeur du pH de la phase aqueuse a une influence sur l’efficacité d’élimination des DMS et DMDS. Une élimination complète de ces derniers est observée pour une gamme de pH comprise entre 5 et 7. Les performances de ce couplage ont été comparées avec celles observées dans le cas de biofiltres seuls (dupliquats). Après une phase d’acclimatation, un fonctionnement stable est maintenu en conditions opératoires stationnaires. Les potentialités du couplage ont été mises en évidence, les niveaux d’abattement des DMS et DMDS étant supérieurs (de l’ordre de 20%) pour le couplage de bioprocédés. La composante microbiologique a fait l’objet d’une attention particulière en évaluant les densités de deux populations connues pour dégrader ces composés soufrés (Hyphomicrobium et Thiobacillus thioparus) par q-PCR au sein du biofiltre couplé au filtre percolateur et des biofiltres de référence. Les résultats obtenus mettent en évidence la présence de ces deux populations à des taux élevés (104 copies du gène ADNr-16S/ng ADN extrait pour Thiobacillus thioparus et 104-106 copies du gène ADNr-16S/ng ADN extrait pour Hyphomicrobium). La répartition de ces deux populations est similaire dans les deux cas (couplage et biofiltres seuls).Face à des perturbations représentatives de celles observées sur site, la robustesse du couplage a pu être mise en évidence, les niveaux d’efficacité d’avant les chocs sont récupérés dans un délai inférieur ou égal à 72 heures après l’arrêt de la perturbation. Enfin, une application sur site (équarrissage) a été conduite sur une période de trois mois et a permis de valider les résultats de laboratoire et de montrer l’adaptabilité d’un tel système face à la variabilité d’un effluent réel. / Waste treatment industries generate gaseous emissions that may induce odor annoyance to the surrounding populations. These gaseous effluents contain a large variety of volatile compounds such as oxygenated (volatile fatty acids, ketones, aldehydes and alcohols), nitrogen and sulphur compounds (hydrogen sulphide (H2S), dimethylsulphide (DMS), dimethyldisulfide (DMDS) and methanethiol (MT). These gaseous emissions are controlled by using an adequate system such as biotechniques. Nevertheless, because of their very low odor thresholds, complete elimination of sulphur compounds has to be assessed, as the residual concentration can induce an odorous impact on neighbourhood populations. The aim of this study is to improve these bioprocesses performances by carrying out an adequate system strategy. The originality of this work is to evaluate the removal efficiency of a mixture of sulphur compounds by implementing a combination of two bioprocesses and more precisely a biotrickling filter and biofilter.The first step of this PhD. work consisted of evaluating the pH impact on the biodegradation activity of a mixture of sulphur compounds (H2S, DMS and DMDS) by using microcosms. The pH has an impact on the removal efficiency of DMS and DMDS. The total removal of these compounds is observed for a pH range between 5 and 7. The performances of the coupling have been compared with those reached by implementing control biofilters (duplicated). After an acclimatization period, stable performances are maintained under constant operating conditions. The efficiency of the coupling have been highlighted, the DMS and DMDS abatement levels are superior (around 20%) for the bioprocesses combination.The microbiological component has been investigated within all biofilters by estimating the densities of two populations involved in the biodegradation of sulphur compounds (Hyphomicrobium and Thiobacillus thioparus), by using qPCR. The obtained results highlighted the presence of both populations at high level (104 copies of DNAr-16S gene/ng extracted DNA for Thiobacillus thioparus and 104-106 copies of DNAr-16S gene/ng extracted DNA for Hyphomicrobium). The repartition of these two bacterial populations is similar in both cases (coupling system and reference biofilters). Under transient shock load conditions, the robustness of the coupling has been revealed. The efficiency levels before the shock load are recovered 48 hours after the perturbation off. Finally, the monitoring of an on- site pilot (rendering facility) has been carried out during three months. The laboratory results have been confirmed and the suitability of such a system has been showed under industrial gas variability.

No description available.

Diesel fuel is composed of a complex mixture of hundreds of hydrocarbons that vary globally depending on crude oil sources, refining processes, legislative requirements and other factors. In order to simplify the study of this fuel, researchers create surrogate fuels with a much simpler composition, in an attempt to mimic and control the physical and chemical properties of Diesel fuel. The first surrogates were single-component fuels such as n-heptane and n-dodecane. Recent advancements have provided researchers the ability to develop multi-component surrogate fuels and apply them to both analytical and experimental studies. The systematic application of precisely controlled surrogate fuels promises to further enhance our understanding of Diesel combustion, efficiency, emissions and particulates and provide tools for investigating new and alternative engine combustion systems. This thesis employed analytical and experimental methods to develop, validate and study a library of multi-component surrogate Diesel fuels. The first step was to design a surrogate fuel to precisely match the physical and chemical properties of a full-range petroleum Diesel fuel with 50 cetane number and a typical threshold soot index value of 31. The next step was to create a Surrogate Fuel Library with 18 fuels that independently varied two key fuel properties: cetane number and threshold soot index. Within the fuel library cetane number ranged from 35 to 60 at three threshold soot index levels of 17, 31 and 48 (low, mid-range and high). Extensive ASTM fuel property tests showed that good agreement with important physical and chemical properties of petroleum Diesel fuel such as density, viscosity, heating value and distillation curve. An experimental investigation was conducted to evaluate the combustion, emissions, soot and exhaust particles from the petroleum Diesel fuel and the matching surrogate fuel. A fully-instrumented single-cylinder Diesel engine was operated with combustion strategies including Premixed Charge Compression Ignition (PCCI), Low-Temperature Combustion (LTC) and Conventional Diesel Combustion (CDC). For combustion, the ignition delay, low-temperature (first stage) and high temperature (second stage) heat-release matched very well. Gaseous emissions, soot and exhaust particles maintained good agreement as exhaust gas recirculation and combustion phasing were varied. This thesis demonstrated that fully representative Diesel surrogate fuels could be tailored with the proper blending of the following hydrocarbon components: n-hexadecane, 2,2,4,4,6,8,8-heptamethylnonane, decahydronaphthalene and 1-methylnaphthalene. It was also established that the volumetric blending fractions of these four components could be varied to independently control the fuel cetane number and threshold soot index while retaining the combustion, physical and chemical properties of full-range petroleum Diesel fuel. The Surrogate Fuel Library provided by this thesis supplies Diesel engine researchers and designers the ability to analytically and experimentally vary fuel cetane number and threshold soot index. This new capability to independently vary two key fuel properties provides a means to further enhance the understanding of Diesel combustion and design future combustion systems that improve efficiency and emissions. / El combustible diésel está compuesto por cientos de hidrocarburos cuya presencia y proporción varía dependiendo del origen del crudo, del proceso de refinado, de los requerimientos legislativos, y de muchos otros factores. Para evitar las dificultades que produce esta variabilidad y complejidad en su composición, en los estudios sistemáticos, los investigadores suelen trabajar con combustibles de sustitución, mucho más sencillos, pero que reproducen las propiedades químicas y físicas del gasóleo. Los primeros combustibles de sustitución estuvieron formados por un solo componente, como el n-heptano y el n-dodecano. Recientemente se han desarrollado combustibles de sustitución multi-componentes, que se aplican tanto a estudios experimentales como de modelado. La aplicación sistemática de combustibles de sustitución controlados con precisión es una vía prometedora para mejorar la comprensión de la combustión Diesel, su eficiencia, y sus emisiones y proporciona herramientas para la investigación de sistemas de combustión nuevos y alternativos. En esta tesis se han empleado métodos experimentales y de cálculo para desarrollar, estudiar y validar una librería de combustibles de sustitución multi-componentes. El primer combustible de sustitución se diseñó para reproducir con precisión las propiedades físicas y químicas de un gasóleo con número de cetano 50 y un índice de hollín umbral (TSI) de 31.El siguiente paso fue crear una biblioteca de combustibles de sustitución con 18 combustibles que pueden modificar independientemente dos propiedades clave del combustible: índice de cetano y TSI. En la biblioteca de combustibles el número de cetano osciló entre 35 y 60 con tres niveles de TSI iguales a 17, 31 y 48 (bajo, medio y alto rango). Los ensayos según la normativa ASTM demostraron una buena coincidencia con las propiedades del gasóleo como densidad, viscosidad, poder calorífico y curvas de destilación. Para comprobar la validez de la librería, se realizó un estudio experimental comparativo sobre el proceso de combustión, las emisiones gaseosas, hollín y partículas de un gasóleo y de su combustible de sustitución ajustado. El estudio se realizó con un motor monocilíndrico Diesel completamente instrumentado y operando con estrategias de combustión en premezcla parcial (PPCI) y de baja temperatura (LTC), además de la combustión Diesel convencional (CDC). Los parámetros de la combustión como el retraso al encendido y la liberación de calor tanto de baja como de alta temperatura se aproximaron muy bien. Las emisiones de gases, hollín y partículas también fueron similares al variar el nivel de EGR y la fase de la combustión. La tesis demuestra que se pueden encontrar combustibles de sustitución perfectamente representativos de un gasóleo corriente, en base a mezclas apropiadas de n-hexadecano, 2,2,4,4,6,8,8-heptamethylnonano, decahidronaftaleno y 1-metilnaftaleno. Asimismo, se concluye que variando la proporción de estos cuatro componentes se puede controlar independientemente el número de cetano y el índice de hollín umbral, a la vez que se mantienen las propiedades físico-químicas y de combustión del gasóleo. La librería de combustibles de sustitución definida en esta tesis es una herramienta a disposición de los investigadores para profundizar en el conocimiento de la combustión diésel y avanzar en el diseño de sistemas futuros de combustión con mejor rendimiento y menores emisiones. / El combustible Diesel està compost per centenars d'hidrocarburs, la presència i proporció dels quals varia depenent de l'origen del cru, del procés de refinat, dels requeriments legislatius, i de molts altres factors. Per a evitar les dificultats que produeix aquesta variabilitat i complexitat en la seua composició, en els estudis sistemàtics, els investigadors solen treballar amb combustibles de substitució, molt més senzills, però que reprodueixen les propietats químiques i físiques del gasoil. Els primers combustibles de substitució van estar formats per un sol component, com el n-heptà i el n-dodecà. Recentment s'han desenvolupat combustibles de substitució multi-components, que s'apliquen tant a estudis experimentals com de modelatge. L'aplicació sistemàtica de combustibles de substitució controlats amb precisió és una via prometedora per a millorar la comprensió de la combustió Dièsel, la seua eficiència, i les seues emissions i proporciona eines per a la recerca de sistemes de combustió nous i alternatius. En aquesta tesi s'han emprat mètodes experimentals i de càlcul per a desenvolupar, estudiar i validar una llibreria de combustibles de substitució multi-components. El primer combustible de substitució es va dissenyar per a reproduir amb precisió les propietats físiques i químiques d'un gasoil amb índex de cetà 50 i un índex de sutge límit (TSI) de 31. El següent pas va ser crear una biblioteca de combustibles de substitució amb 18 combustibles que poden modificar independentment dues propietats clau del combustible: índex de cetà i TSI. En la biblioteca de combustibles l'índex de cetá va oscil·lar entre 35 i 60 amb tres nivells de TSI iguals a 17, 31 i 48 (baix, mitjà i alt rang). Els assajos segons la normativa ASTM van demostrar una bona coincidència amb les propietats del gasoil com a densitat, viscositat, poder calorífic i corbes de destil·lació. Per a comprovar la validesa de la llibreria, es va realitzar un estudi experimental comparatiu sobre el procés de combustió, les emissions gasoses, sutge i partícules d'un gasoil i del seu combustible de substitució ajustat. L'estudi es va realitzar amb un motor monocilíndric Dièsel completament instrumentat i operant amb estratègies de combustió en premescla parcial (PPCI) i de baixa temperatura (LTC), a més de la combustió Dièsel convencional (CDC). Els paràmetres de la combustió com el retard a l'encès i l'alliberament de calor tant de baixa com d'alta temperatura es van aproximar molt bé. Les emissions de gasos, sutge i partícules també van ser similars en variar el nivell d'EGR i la fase de la combustió. La tesi demostra que es poden trobar combustibles de substitució perfectament representatius d'un gasoil corrent, sobre la base de mescles apropiades de n-hexadecà, 2,2,4,4,6,8,8-heptamethylnonà, decahidronaftalé i 1-metilnaftaleno. Així mateix, es conclou que variant la proporció d'aquests quatre components es pot controlar independentment l'índex de cetà i l'índex de sutge límit, alhora que es mantenen les propietats físic-químiques i de combustió del gasoil. La llibreria de combustibles de substitució definida en aquesta tesi és una eina a la disposició dels investigadors per a aprofundir en el coneixement de la combustió Diesel i avançar en el disseny de sistemes futurs de combustió amb millor rendiment i menors emissions. / Szymkowicz, P. (2017). ANALYTICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF MULTI-COMPONENT SURROGATE DIESEL FUELS [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/90406 / TESIS

Emissions from airport operations are of significant concern because of their potential impact on local air quality and human health. The currently limited scientific knowledge of aircraft emissions is an important issue worldwide, when considering air pollution associated with airport operation, and this is especially so for ultrafine particles. This limited knowledge is due to scientific complexities associated with measuring aircraft emissions during normal operations on the ground. In particular this type of research has required the development of novel sampling techniques which must take into account aircraft plume dispersion and dilution as well as the various particle dynamics that can affect the measurements of the aircraft engine plume from an operational aircraft. In order to address this scientific problem, a novel mobile emission measurement method called the Plume Capture and Analysis System (PCAS), was developed and tested. The PCAS permits the capture and analysis of aircraft exhaust during ground level operations including landing, taxiing, takeoff and idle. The PCAS uses a sampling bag to temporarily store a sample, providing sufficient time to utilize sensitive but slow instrumental techniques to be employed to measure gas and particle emissions simultaneously and to record detailed particle size distributions. The challenges in relation to the development of the technique include complexities associated with the assessment of the various particle loss and deposition mechanisms which are active during storage in the PCAS. Laboratory based assessment of the method showed that the bag sampling technique can be used to accurately measure particle emissions (e.g. particle number, mass and size distribution) from a moving aircraft or vehicle. Further assessment of the sensitivity of PCAS results to distance from the source and plume concentration was conducted in the airfield with taxiing aircraft. The results showed that the PCAS is a robust method capable of capturing the plume in only 10 seconds. The PCAS is able to account for aircraft plume dispersion and dilution at distances of 60 to 180 meters downwind of moving a aircraft along with particle deposition loss mechanisms during the measurements. Characterization of the plume in terms of particle number, mass (PM2.5), gaseous emissions and particle size distribution takes only 5 minutes allowing large numbers of tests to be completed in a short time. The results were broadly consistent and compared well with the available data. Comprehensive measurements and analyses of the aircraft plumes during various modes of the landing and takeoff (LTO) cycle (e.g. idle, taxi, landing and takeoff) were conducted at Brisbane Airport (BNE). Gaseous (NOx, CO2) emission factors, particle number and mass (PM2.5) emission factors and size distributions were determined for a range of Boeing and Airbus aircraft, as a function of aircraft type and engine thrust level. The scientific complexities including the analysis of the often multimodal particle size distributions to describe the contributions of different particle source processes during the various stages of aircraft operation were addressed through comprehensive data analysis and interpretation. The measurement results were used to develop an inventory of aircraft emissions at BNE, including all modes of the aircraft LTO cycle and ground running procedures (GRP). Measurements of the actual duration of aircraft activity in each mode of operation (time-in-mode) and compiling a comprehensive matrix of gas and particle emission rates as a function of aircraft type and engine thrust level for real world situations was crucial for developing the inventory. The significance of the resulting matrix of emission rates in this study lies in the estimate it provides of the annual particle emissions due to aircraft operations, especially in terms of particle number. In summary, this PhD thesis presents for the first time a comprehensive study of the particle and NOx emission factors and rates along with the particle size distributions from aircraft operations and provides a basis for estimating such emissions at other airports. This is a significant addition to the scientific knowledge in terms of particle emissions from aircraft operations, since the standard particle number emissions rates are not currently available for aircraft activities.

Abstract in English / Incineration is still a widely utilised method for treating healthcare risk waste in the Republic of South Africa. As much as incinerators are needed, the fact that they are still a critical source of hazardous toxic air pollutants that are not easy to manage cannot be disregarded. The Ministry of Environmental Affairs has promulgated a new regulation for General and Hazardous Waste Thermal Treatment. This exceedingly stringent air pollution legislation requires that existing incinerators be modified or redesigned to meet the new air quality standards, or face closure in the event that they fail to comply. The regulation contains strict emission requirements for concentrations of stack gases such as CO2, NO2, NOx, HCl, HF, CO, SO2, as well as TOC and PM. To be certain that emissions are within the standard, incineration facilities are instructed to reduce the acid gas emissions and to have permanent on-line monitoring equipment for stack testing of regulated pollutants. Since the promulgation of the new legislation in April 2015, none of the incinerators in South Africa has been able to achieve the new requirements. This study, based on the quantitative approach, was conducted in search of a cost-effective method of controlling acid gas emissions from incinerators without major adjustments to the plants. During the study, 60 kg of sorbacal Ca(OH)2 was injected into a lime feeder every day. A variable speed drive was used to inject Ca(OH)2 into the furnace continuously at a rate of between 2.5 kg/h and 3.5 kg/h. The temperature was maintained between 850°C and 1200°C with the use of four gas burners. Two manual blowers were utilised to ensure a continuous flow of Ca(OH)2 into the reaction chamber and filtration system. Comparative analysis was done to compare gas emission levels before and after the use of hydrated lime. Descriptive statistics were used to compute the mean, frequency and percentages, while Wilcoxon sign rank test established whether hydrated lime was significant in reducing gaseous emissions or not. Wilcoxon sign rank test showed a statistically significant difference (P<0.05) in the reduction of all gaseous emissions using hydrated lime, except particulate matter where there was a significant increase in emissions. This technology was able to achieve high removal efficiency of 97% for HCl, 86% for HF, 83% for NOx, 87% for SO2 and 74% for NO2. The optimum temperature for SO2 and NOx was 1020°C. For HCl it was between 1190°C and 1200°C, and for NO2 it was between 1120°C and 1200°C. The amount of particulate matter increased along with the concentration of the Ca(OH)2 injections. Ca(OH)2 was found to be cost effective in the controlling and capturing of gaseous emissions. It is recommended that combustion requirements, such as heat, oxygen and turbulence, be considered to reduce the amount of gases generated during the incineration of healthcare risk waste. It is also recommended that electrostatic precipitators be used instead of fabric filters to improve the efficiency of capturing the particulate matter. / Environmental Sciences / M.Sc. (Environmental Science)