Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infection initiates major metabolic and cell- survival complications. Anti-retroviral therapy (ART) is the current approach to suppress active HIV replication to a level of undetected viral load, but it is not a curative approach. Newer and sophisticated gene editing technologies could indeed be a potent antiviral therapy to achieve a clinical sterilization/cure of HIV infection. Chronic HIV patients, even under a successful ART regimen, exhibit a low-grade inflammation, immune senescence, premature aging, telomeric DNA attrition, T cell apoptosis, and cellular homeostasis. In this dissertation, we investigated CD4 T cell homeostasis, degree of T cell apoptosis, an associated telomeric DNA damage, DNA damage repair signaling, and the apoptotic pathways in CD4 T cells during HIV infection with or without ART treatment. Our data support a DNA damage accumulation, and impaired DNA damage repair in chromosome ends via recruitment of 53BP1 protein to the damaged foci. We found that a key player of DNA damage and repair enzyme, ATM, and its associated checkpoint proteins (CHK1, CKH2) are affected by HIV infection. HIV infection also altered another multifunctional master regulator protein AKT that is crucial in maintaining cellular homeostasis. Curing HIV is the ultimate redemption against HIV-associated complications. To explore the possibility of a functional cure, we investigated the use of a transient and a non-viral CRISPR/Cas9-based gene editing technology targeting the latently incorporated HIV provirus. After performing a nucleofection/electroporation using an in vitro formulated ribonucleoprotein (RNP) constituting a synthetic guide RNA (gRNA) and Cas9 nuclease protein, we demonstrated a significant (maximum 97%) reduction of HIV-mRNA and p24-capsid protein expression, upon stimulation (using PMA) and latency reactivation of latently HIV-infected CD4 T cells and latent-monocytes. Notably, the RNP treatment did not induce any cytotoxic effects, without affecting the abilility of cell proliferation. A sequence specific cleavage of HIV-provirus in two crucial gene locations (targeting vpr/tat genes) showed the most significant suppression of HIV reactivation or latency reversal. We have used DNA sequencing, and T7EI assay to confirm the target-site-specific cleavage of the HIV-proviral genome. Our data confirm the activation of non- homologous end joining (NHEJ) pathway to repair the double-stranded DNA break created by the CRISPR/Cas9 treatment. Taken together, this study provides a new gene therapeutic approach using synthetic gRNA/Cas9 targeting HIV genome, which warrant further in vivo animal and human studies.

Tyrosine site-specific recombinases (Y-SSRs) are DNA editing enzymes that play a valuable role for the manipulation of genomes, due to their precision and versatility. They have been widely used in biotechnology and molecular biology for various applications, and are slowly finding their spot in gene therapy in recent years. However, the limited number of available Y-SSR systems and their often narrow target specificity have hindered the full potential of these enzymes for advanced genome engineering. In this PhD thesis, I conducted a comprehensive investigation of novel Y-SSRs and their potential for advancing genome engineering. This PhD thesis aims to address the current limitations in the genetic toolbox by identifying and characterizing novel Cre-type recombinases and demonstrating their impact on the directed evolution of designer recombinases for precise genome surgery. To achieve these aims, I developed in a collaboration a comprehensive prediction pipeline, combining a rational bioinformatical approach with knowledge of the biological functions of recombinases, to enable high success rate and high-throughput identification of novel tyrosine site-specific recombinase (Y-SSR) systems. Eight putative candidates were molecularly characterized in-depth to ensure their successful integration into future genome engineering applications. I assessed their activity in prokaryotes (E. coli) and eukaryotes (human cell lines), and determined their specificity in the sequence space of all known Cre- type target sites. The potential cytotoxicity associated with cryptic genomic recombination sites was also explored in the context of recombinase applicability. This approach allowed the identification of novel Y-SSRs with distinct target sites, enabling simultaneous use of multiple Y-SSR systems, and provided knowledge that will facilitate the assignment of novel and known recombinases to specific uses or organisms, ensuring their safe and effective implementation. The introduction of these novel Y-SSRs into the genome engineering toolbox opens up new possibilities for precise genome manipulation in various applications. The broader targetability offered by these enzymes could accelerate the development of novel gene therapies, as well as advance the understanding of gene function and regulation. Moreover, these recombinases could be used to design custom genetic circuits for synthetic biology, allowing researchers to create more complex and sophisticated cellular systems. Finally, I introduced the novel Y-SSRs into efforts aimed at developing designer recombinases for precise genome surgery, demonstrating their impact on accelerating the directed evolution process. Therapeutically relevant recombinases with altered DNA specificity have been developed for excision or inversion of specific DNA sequences. However, the potential for evolving recombinases capable of integrating large DNA cargos into naturally occurring lox-like sites in the human genome remained untapped so far. Thus, I embarked on evolving the Vika recombinase to mediate the integration of DNA cargo into a native human sequence. I discovered that Vika could integrate DNA into the voxH9 site in the human genome, and then, I enhanced the process through directed evolution. The evolved variants of Vika displayed a marked improvement in integration efficiency in bacterial systems. However, the translation of these results into mammalian systems has not yet been entirely successful. Despite this, the study laid the groundwork for future research to optimize the efficiency and applicability of Y-SSRs for genomic integration. In summary, this thesis made significant strides in the identification, characterization, and development of novel Y-SSRs for advanced genome engineering. The comprehensive prediction pipeline, combined with in-depth molecular characterization, has expanded the genetic toolbox to meet the growing demand for better genome editing tools. By exploring efficiency, cross-specificity, and potential cytotoxicity, this research lays the foundation for the safe and effective application of novel Y-SSRs in various therapeutic settings. Furthermore, by demonstrating the potential of these recombinases to improve efforts in creating designer recombinases through directed evolution, this research has opened new avenues for precise genome surgery. The successful development and implementation of these novel recombinases have the potential to revolutionize gene therapy, synthetic biology, and our understanding of gene function and regulation.

Cystic Fibrosis (CF) is a common life-shortening autosomal recessive disease that affects over 100.000 people worldwide people worldwide. It is caused by mutations in the CF trans-membrane conductance regulator (CFTR) gene, that encodes for a membrane channel localized at the apical surface of epithelial cells where it has a crucial role in the secretion of chloride and bicarbonate. Over 2100 different CFTR mutations have been reported and among the pathogenic once the most common is F508del, located in the nucleotide-binding domain 1 (NBD1). F508del is a three-nucleotide deletion that results in the loss of a phenylalanine at position 508 in the protein and in the consequent CFTR degradation by the ubiquitin-proteasome system. Different attempts to correct F508del-CFTR gene were made using genome editing approaches, however deletions like F508del remain difficult to be repaired. Several studies reported that additional mutations (revertant mutations) in the F508del-CFTR gene can rescue both CFTR folding and activity, suggesting a potential novel strategy to correct F508del. For this reason, the first aim of this work was the identification of novel F508del-CFTR revertants that can rescue CFTR localization and function. We generated a library of mutants introducing random substitutions into the F508del-CFTR gene. Revertant mutations were isolated based on their ability to rescue the presence of CFTR at the plasma membrane (PM) in HEK293T cells and identified by Sanger sequencing. Restoration of CFTR maturation, localization, and function of the identified revertants was evaluated by western blot, flow cytometry analysis and YFP assay, reaching levels similar to the wild type CFTR. Then we used CRISPR-Cas technology to introduce selected revertant mutations, such as I539T, R553Q, G550E, R555K and R1070W, in the endogenous F508del-CFTR gene. Adenine and cytosine base editors (ABE and CBE) allow the insertion of the desired base conversion without the formation of double strand breaks. Efficient editing was evaluated through Sanger sequencing, reaching up to 60% of base conversion. CFTR rescue at the PM in edited cells was analyzed by flow cytometry showing different degrees of recovery compared to the wild type CFTR. In this work, we confirmed that revertant mutations can rescue F508del CFTR localization and function. In addition, we demonstrated that CRISPR-base editors are valid tools to introduce these mutations in the endogenous F508del-CFTR gene, leading to a permanent correction. The proposed strategy could overcome the limits that genome editing strategies faced till now in the correction of F508del, providing a new potential therapeutic approach to treat CF.

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Reproductive containment in farmed fish is highly desired for sustainable aquaculture to prevent genetic introgression with wild conspecifics and enhance productivity by suppressing sexual maturation. A number of strategies have already been implemented or have been tested in commercially important fish (e.g. triploidy, monosexing, hormonal therapies); however, they either do not result in 100% containment, or they cannot be applied to all species. One promising new approach consists in disrupting primordial germ cells (PGCs), at the origin of germline cells, to induce sterility. The work carried out in this doctoral thesis aimed to investigate the genes involved in the survival of germ cells and subsequently conduct a functional analysis of candidate genes using CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing system to ultimately provide the basis for the development of a novel sterilisation technique. Nile tilapia was chosen as the experimental animal as it is a major aquaculture species worldwide and the control of reproduction plays a critical role in the farming productivity in this species. In addition, the species has clear advantages as its whole genome sequence is accessible, the generation time is relatively short and zygotes can be available all year round. Initially, a panel of 11 candidate genes with reported roles in survival of PGCs was investigated during the ontogenic development which led to the selection of piwi-like (piwil) gene as a target for genome editing. Then, high temperature was tested as a means to induce germ cell loss to better understand the mechanism underlying germ cell survival and apoptosis, and this study confirmed the functional importance of piwil genes in relation to germ cell loss and proliferation. In addition, the study suggested potential subfunctionalisation within the Bcl-2 gene family which requires further investigation. The next step aimed to optimise the CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing method by improving the microinjection system and testing different concentrations of sgRNAs. Over 95% of injected embryos showed on-target mutation in piwil2 via zygote injection of CRISPR/Cas9 reagents and complete KO larvae were shown in half of the mutants, producing putative sterile fish. However, there was no clear association between the phenotypes in PGCs and the mutation rate. Further comparative studies of mutant screening methods including T7E1, RGEN, HRMA, fragment analysis and NGS revealed that the genotypes of F0 are highly mosaic, suggesting that deep sequencing is recommended for accurate and high throughput F0 screening and further improvement for predictable genome editing is required for a reliable gene functional analysis in F0. In summary, the current thesis provided new scientific knowledge and supporting evidence for the use of the CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing platform to study gene function associated with sterility, with the ultimate goal to develop an alternative sterilisation method in fish.

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[ES] La leucemia mieloide aguda (LMA) se trata de un grupo heterogéneo de desórdenes hematológicos producidos por alteraciones genéticas en las células precursoras mieloides. Las mutaciones en la enzima Isocitrato deshidrogenasa 2 (IDH2) son unas de estas alteraciones. Las mutaciones más frecuentes en esta proteína afectan a las posiciones R140 y R172, provocando una ganancia de función con la producción del oncometabolito D-2-hidroxiglutarato (2-HG). A pesar de que ambas inducen la producción de 2-HG, la mutación R172 produce mayor cantidad de oncometabolito, presenta menos concurrencias con otras alteraciones genéticas y se asocia a una peor respuesta a la quimioterapia y un mayor riesgo de recaída. Los modelos de investigación han permitido conocer el papel de las mutaciones genéticas en el desarrollo de la enfermedad. A pesar de ello, es necesario desarrollar nuevos modelos que expresen de forma endógena estas mutaciones para estudiar en profundidad las vías moleculares afectadas. Por todo ello, en esta Tesis se han desarrollado nuevas estrategias de edición génica mediante el sistema CRISPR/Cas9 con el objetivo de desarrollar nuevos modelos in vitro e in vivo de mutaciones implicadas en LMA. Debido a la baja eficiencia de transfección de los plásmidos CRISPR en las líneas celulares leucémicas, el método más empleado para introducir los elementos CRISPR han sido principalmente vectores lentivirales. Para evitar los inconvenientes de este tipo de vectores, en esta Tesis se ha desarrollado una estrategia alternativa para la introducción de la nucleasa Cas9 y los guías CRISPR. El gen codificante de la Cas9 se introdujo en el genoma de células NB4 mediante transducción con lentivirus, generando una línea celular con expresión constitutiva de la nucleasa. Por otro lado, se desarrolló un sistema sencillo de producción de los guías CRISPR mediante PCR con los elementos esenciales para su expresión y la expresión del reportero GFP de forma opcional. Con el objetivo de optimizar la técnica y probar su eficiencia en distintas dianas se modificaron dos genes implicados en LMA. Estos fueron el gen IDH2, en el cuál se buscó introducir la mutación R172, y el gen MYBL2. Finalmente, las eficiencias de edición obtenidas se compararon con el uso de complejos de ribonucleoproteínas CRISPR, muy utilizados por su alta eficiencia. Mientras que los complejos de ribonucleoproteínas presentaron una mayor eficiencia de corte, la eficiencia de edición de la mutación R172 fue similar en ambas estrategias. Mediante secuenciación masiva se confirmó y caracterizó esta edición y se comprobó que la maquinaria de edición no había producido cortes inespecíficos en regiones similares del genoma. Por tanto, la nueva metodología desarrollada permitió editar de forma precisa líneas celulares leucémicas con eficiencias similares a otras técnicas CRISPR más extendidas y sin producir efectos inespecíficos no deseados. Por otro lado, gracias a la gran conservación evolutiva del gen IDH2, los residuos R140 y R172 se encuentran conservados en la proteína idh-2 de Caenorhabditis elegans. Se empleó la estrategia co-CRISPR para desarrollar y seleccionar cepas mutantes con las mutaciones ortólogas a R140 y R172, y una cepa con ambas mutaciones. A pesar de la conservación, no se observó el aumento del oncometabolito 2-HG esperado en las cepas mutantes en comparación con la cepa salvaje control N2. Un estudio exhaustivo de las vías implicadas nos serviría para desarrollar modelos de investigación con las alteraciones moleculares observadas en los pacientes. Para concluir, la estrategia desarrollada de introducción de elementos CRISPR en líneas celulares, junto a los modelos producidos en C. elegans, permitirán en futuros estudios investigar en detalle los efectos moleculares de mutaciones detectadas en pacientes de LMA, su implicación en el desarrollo y pronóstico de la LMA y comprender su papel en la estratificación de los pacientes. / [CA] La leucèmia mieloide aguda (LMA) es tracta d'un grup heterogeni de desordres hematològics produïts per alteracions genètiques en les cèl·lules precursores mieloides. Les mutacions en l'enzim Isocitrato deshidrogenasa 2 (IDH2) son d'aquestes alteracions. Les mutacions més freqüents en aquesta proteïna afecten a les posicions R1240 i R172, produint un guany de funció amb la producció de l'oncometabolit D-2-hidroxiglutarat (2-HG). A pesar que ambdues indueixen la producció de 2-HG, la mutació R172 produeix mes quantitat de oncometabolit, presenta menys co ocurrències con altres alteracions genètiques i s'associa a una pitjor resposta a la quimioteràpia i un major risc de recaiguda. Els models d'investigació han permés conéixer el paper de les mutacions genètiques en el desenvolupament de la malaltia. Malgrat això, és necessari desenvolupar nous models que expressen de manera endògena aquestes mutacions per a estudiar en profunditat les vies moleculars afectades. Per tot això, en aquesta Tesis s'han desenvolupat noves estratègies d'edició gènica mitjançant el sistema CRISPR/Cas9 amb l'objectiu de desenvolupar nous models in vitro i in vivo de les mutacions implicades en la LMA. Degut a la baixa eficiència de transfecció dels plasmids CRISPR en les línies cel·lulars leucèmiques, el mètode més emprat per a introduir els elements CRISPR han sigut principalment vectors lentivirals. Per a evitar els inconvenients d'aquesta mena de vectors, en aquesta Tesis s'ha desenvolupat una estratègia alternativa per a la introducció de la nucleasa Cas9 i els guies CRISPR. El gen codificant de la Cas9 es va introduir al genoma de cèl·lules NB4 mitjançant transducció amb lentivirus, generant una línia cel·lular amb expressió constitutiva de la nucleasa. D'altra banda, es va desenvolupar un sistema fàcil de producció dels guies CRISPR mitjançant PCR amb els elements essencials d'expressió i amb l'expressió del reporter GFP de manera opcional. Amb l'objectiu d'optimitzar la tècnica i provar la seua eficiència en diferents dianes es van modificar dos gens implicats en LMA. Aquests van ser el gen IDH2, en el qual es va buscar introduir la mutació R172, i el gen MYBL2. Finalment, les eficiències d'edició obtingudes amb la nova estratègia es van comparar amb l'ús de complexos ribonucleotproteïnes CRISPR, molt utilitzats per la seua alta eficiència. Mentre que els complexos de ribonucleoproteïnes van presentar una major eficiència de tall, l'eficiència d'edició de la mutació R172 va ser similar en les dues estratègies. Mitjançant seqüenciació massiva es va confirmar i caracteritzar aquesta edició i es va comprovar que la maquinària d'edició no havia produït talls inespecífics en regions similars del genoma. D'aquesta manera, la nova metodologia desenvolupada permet editar de manera precisa línies cel·lulars leucèmiques amb eficiències similars a altres tècniques CRISPR més esteses i sense produir efectes inespecífics no desitjats. D'altra banda, gràcies a la gran conservació evolutiva del gen IDH2, els residus R140 i R172 es troben conservats en la proteïna idh-2 de Caenorhabditis elegans. Es va utilitzar l'estratègia co-CRISPR per a desenvolupar i seleccionar ceps mutants amb les mutacions ortòlogues a R140 i R172, i un cep amb dues mutacions. Malgrat l'alta conservació, no es va observar l'augment del oncometabolit 2-HG esperat en els ceps mutants en comparació amb el cep salvatge control N2. Un estudi exhaustiu de les vies implicades ens serviria per a desenvolupar models d'investigació amb les alteracions moleculars observades en els pacients. Per a concloure, l'estratègia desenvolupada d'introducció d'elements CRISPR en línies cel·lulars, al costat dels models produïts en C. elegans permetran en estudis futurs investigar detalladament els efectes moleculars de mutacions detectades en pacients, la seua implicació en el desenvolupament i prognosi de la LMA i comprendre el seu paper en l'estratificació dels pacients. / [EN] Acute Myeloid Leukaemia (AML) is a heterogeneous group of haematological disorders caused by genetic alterations in myeloid precursors. Mutations in the Isocitrate dehydrogenase enzyme are among these alterations. The most frequent mutations in this protein affect R140 and R172 positions, leading to a gain of function with the production of the oncometabolite D-2-hydroxyglutarate (2-HG). Although both induce the 2-HG production, the R172 mutation generates greater amount of oncometabolite, has fewer co-occurrences with other genetic alterations and is associated with worse chemotherapy response and higher relapse risk. Research models have made possible to study the role of genetic mutations in disease development. Despite this progress, new models with endogenous expression of these mutations are needed to study in depth the molecular pathways involved. Therefore, in this Thesis we have developed new gene editing strategies using the CRISPR/Cas9 system with the aim of developing new in vitro and in vivo models of mutations involved in AML. Regarding in vitro model, due to the low transfection efficiency of CRISPR plasmids in leukemic cell lines, the most commonly method used for introducing CRISPR elements have been mainly lentiviral vectors. To avoid the disadvantages of this type of vectors, in this Thesis we have developed an alternative strategy for introducing Cas9 nuclease and CRISPR guides. The gene encoding the Cas9 was introduced into NB4 genome by lentiviral transduction producing a stable cell line that constitutively express the nuclease. On the other hand, a simple system for the production of CRISPR guides by PCR with essential elements of expression was developed and with GFP reporter expression optionally. In order to optimise the technique and test its efficiency in different targets, two genes involved in AML were modified. These were IDH2 gene, in which R172 mutation was introduced, and MYBL2 gene. Finally, editing efficiencies obtained with the new strategy were compared with CRISPR ribonucleoproteins methodology, widely used for its high efficiency. Whereas ribonucleoprotein complexes showed higher cut efficiencies, the efficiency of edition of R172 mutation efficiency was similar in both strategies. These results were validated and characterized by means of next generation sequencing, and no off-target effects were found. Therefore, the new developed methodology allows precise gene editing in leukemic cell lines with similar efficiencies with other popular CRISPR techniques and without off-target effects. On the other hand, thanks to the high evolutive conservation of IDH2 gene R140 and R172 residues are conserved in Caenorhabditis elegans idh-2 protein. The co-CRISPR strategy was used to produce and select mutant strains with ortholog mutations to R140, R172 and one strain with both mutations. Despite the high conservation, the expected increase in oncometabolite 2-HG concentration was not detected in mutant strains compared to the N2 wild type strain. A comprehensive study of the pathways involved would help us to develop a research model with molecular alterations noticed in patients. In conclusion, the new developed strategy for CRISPR elements introduction in cell lines, together with C. elegans models, will allow an in-depth research of molecular effect of mutations detected in patients, its implication in AML progression and prognosis and understand their role in patient stratification. / González Romero, E. (2022). Investigación de la Leucemia Mieloide Aguda mediante el desarrollo de modelos in vitro e in vivo [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/181891 / TESIS

This paper examined how Change Management and Transformational Leadership can be effective tools in transitioning towards sustainable agriculture in Europe. This paper starts with providing empirical evidence for climate change and shows that Northern and Southern Europe are impacted differently by climate change. Then this paper examined how climate change affects farmers in the different parts of Europe and what Societal, Environmental, Leadership and Organisational changes have to be made to transition towards sustainable agriculture in Europe. The qualitative analysis shows that, according to farmer associations, there is a need for a variety of options, a lack of communication and insufficient involvement of farmers on a policy making level. This paper ends with explaining how Change Management and Transformational Leadership can be used as tools to improve communication between stakeholders and improve the involvement of farmers in the co-creation process. Therefore, this paper concludes that Change Management and Transformational leadership will help the European Union in realising sustainable agriculture in Europe.

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