The objectives of the study were as follows: 1. To investigate the following of the Agricultural Extension Service in the United States (North Carolina) and Ghana: A. Background and History; B. Organization; C. Program Areas; D. Communication Proceses and Methods Used; and E. Reporting and Evaluation of Frog rams. 2. To write a descriptive comparison of the two extension systems. 3. To make recommendations for the improvement of the Ghanain Extension Service based on the findings. Ghana has an Agricultural Extension Service which has not been successful in changing the life of the peasant farmers and needs to be improved if agriculture is to be successful in Ghana. It is now believed by the Ghanain policy makers that agriculture is a more stable and everlasting base for the economy and again needs to be a primary source of income. The methods used in this study were as follows: A. Resources Review. A resource review was made of tha elements selected for the study. B. Sources of Information. Additional information was obtain.ea from other sources such as the Agricultural Extension Service in the United States and Ghana through personal interviews. C. A descriptive comparison was made of all of the elements studied, and conclusions were drawn. D. Recommendations for the improvement of the Ghana Extension Service were made. The comparison of the Agricultural Extension Service in the United States and the Ghanain Extension Service shows a number of similarities and differences. There are differences in the organizational structure, methods used to carry out the Extension programs, variety of programs and methods of reporting and evaluation of programs. Ten important recommendations resulted from the study for the improvement of the Agricultural Extension Service in Ghana. 1. That laws or decrees be enacted to provide a legal basis for the organization and operation of the extension service by the Ghana government. 2. That a formal functional organizational relationship be established between the Agricultural Extension Service and the higher educational institutes. 3. That advisory committees be organized at each level of the organizational structure of the Agricultural Extension Service. 4. That clientele committees' input be utilized in the development process of the program areas. 5. That the Home Economics area be emphasized so that it will have more impact on the local people. 6. That youth programs be established as a part of the total extension programs. 7. That the program areas of the Extension Service be developed and implemented at the local levels. 8. That an evaluation unit be created as part of the Extension division. 9. That the farm demonstration technique of teaching. be used as the primary teaching method, and 10. That adequate working relationships be established at the top organizational level and maintained at the local levels :between the Agricultural Extension Service and all agriculturally related institutions. / Ed. D.

While previous research suggests that risk management influences project success, less is known about the practical application of the risk management concept on projects and its’ influence on development project success. Thus, this thesis investigates the impact of risk management on project success from a development project perspective. Adopting a qualitative case study approach with semi-structured interviews as the main source of data collection and assessing success from a stakeholder perspective as well as the achievements of the project’s intended outcomes and analysing the various risk management strategies adopted in the pursuance of those outcomes, the findings indicate that risk management practice positively influence development project success. To achieve this, the empirical data shows that risk identification need to be approached strategically to provide a clear focus for project delivery leading to the design of strategic actions to respond to identified risks as well as an effective monitoring and evaluation of the risk management process as a whole. Additionally, the different stakeholder objectives and expectations need to be strategically incorporated into the risk management strategy without deviating from the project’s purpose. The study recommends the need for development project managers not to over-rely on academic expertise in their identification of risks but make use of the wider pool of knowledge available to them, technical or not and to also pursue the positive impacts of risk. Furthermore, they should widen their risk management strategies to include donor support missions, without deviating from the project’s purpose, to ensure transparency and efficiency.

Malaria ist noch immer die häufigste parasitäre Erkrankung in den Tropen. Vor allem afrikanische Kinder < 5 Jahren sind betroffen. Die steigende Chloroquinresistenz ist für einen deutlichen Anstieg der Kindersterblichkeit verantwortlich. Mehrere Studien belegen, dass die Kombination von Chloroquin (CQ) mit Sulfadoxin-Pyrimethamin (SP) in Afrika bei niedriggradiger CQ-Resistenz die therapeutische Wirksamkeit erhöht und damit auch die Resistenzentwicklung gegenüber beiden Medikamenten verzögern kann. Bei 315 Kindern im Alter von 6-59 Monaten wurde von Nov. 2000 bis Nov. 2001 eine Studie zur Epidemiologie der Malaria und zum Therapieausgang von CQ und SP in Tamale/Nord-Ghana durchgeführt. Bei Vorliegen einer Malaria wurde mit CQ und SP behandelt und der Therapieausgang gemäß eines modifizierten WHO-Protokolls von 1996 ermittelt. Die Gesamtzahl der Malaria-Episoden im Zeitraum betrug 836. In der Regenzeit erkrankte mit 23,7% ein signifikant höherer Anteil der Kinder an Malaria als in der Trockenzeit mit 9,4%. Ein frühes Therapieversagen (ETF) wurde in 5% der Fälle beobachtet, ein spätes Therapieversagen (LTF) in 19,5% der Fälle. 211 Fälle (68,7%) hatten einen klinischen Therapieerfolg (ACR). Alter < 3 Jahren war ein unabhängiger Einflussfaktor für ETF und Gesamttherapieversagen. Eine hohe Parasitendichte war ein unabhängiger Einflussfaktor für LTF und Gesamttherapieversagen. Das Risiko, ein Gesamttherapieversagen (ETF + LTF) zu entwickeln, war in der Regenzeit um das 6-fache gegenüber der Trockenzeit erhöht. Bei allen erstmalig mit CQ und SP behandelten Fällen (n = 206) war der ACR (72,3%) statistisch grenzwertig höher als bei zweiter oder mehrfacher Behandlung (61,4%; n = 101). Bei den mehrfach therapierten Fällen bestand mit 27% gegenüber 16% bei den erstmalig therapierten Fällen ein signifikant höheres Risiko, ein LTF zu entwickeln. Die Erholung des Hb-Gehalts bei den erfolgreich therapierten Fällen betrug 0,6 g/dl und unterschied sich signifikant vom Hb-Anstieg (0,4 g/dl) bei Fällen mit LTF. Ein Vergleich des ACR der beschriebenen Studie mit einer zuvor durchgeführten CQ-Studie ergab keinen signifikanten Unterschied. Die Ergebnisse dieser Studie legen die Schlussfolgerung nahe, dass sich die Therapie aus CQ und SP wegen der hohen CQ-Resistenz und der sich rasch entwickelnden SP-Resistenz zumindest in Nordghana nicht eignet. / Malaria remains the most frequent parasite disease in the tropics. Especially African children under 5 years are at risk. The rising chloroquine resistance is the cause for a significant increase in childhood mortality. Several studies indicate that the combination of chloroquin (CQ) and sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine (SP) in Africa with low-grade CQ resistance increases the therapeutic efficacy and can thus slow down the development of resistance to both drugs. The epidemiology of malaria and the therapeutic outcome of CQ and SP was assessed in a cohort study of 315 children aged 6-59 months from November 2000-November 2001 in Tamale/Northern Ghana. In the case of malaria a combination therapy of CQ and SP was given and the therapeutic outcome was assessed in a modified WHO protocol. The total number of all malaria episodes in the observation period was 836. In the rainy season, the amount of the children with malaria was significantly higher than in the dry season (23,7% vs. 9,4%). Early treatment failure (ETF) was observed in 5% of the cases and late treatment failure (LTF) in 19,5%. 211 cases (68,7%) fulfilled the criteria for adequate clinical response (ACR). Age under 3 years was an independent predictor for ETF and overall therapeutic failure. High initial parasite density was an independent predictor for LTF and overall therapeutic failure. The risk of developing an overall therapeutic failure (ETF + LTF) was 6 times greater in the rainy season than in the dry sason. In all cases with the first treatment of CQ and SP (n = 206), the percentage of ACR (72,3%) was significantly greater than in cases treated twice or more (61,4%, n = 101). Cases with 2 or more treatments were at a significantly higher risk of developing a LTF than cases with one treatment (27% vs. 16%). The recovery of the hb levels in cases with successful treatment was 0,6 g/dl and was significantly different from the haemoglobin increase in cases with LTF. A comparison between the therapeutic success of CQ and SP with CQ alone did not show a significant difference. The results of this study indicate that the combination therapy of CQ and SP is no longer useful for treatment of uncomplicated malaria in Northern Ghana because of the high CQ resistance and the increasing resistance of SP.

Eine geringe Wertschätzung von Zwischenhändlern wie in vielen Entwicklungsländern ist auch in Ghana vorzufinden, was einerseits aus geschichtlichen Gründen aber auch aus Unwissenheit entsteht. Der Bereich der Zwischenhändler ist vorwiegend durch Frauen aus ruralen Gebieten betrieben, die Analphabeten und Autodidakten sind. Der Handel ist auf jeder Ebene organisiert, von den Kommunen über die Distriktstädte, die regionalen Hauptstädte und auch über die Grenzen des Landes hinaus. Die Händlerinnen organisieren damit den Warenfluss von den entlegenen Plätzen der Produktion oder aus dem Ausland, um es zu den Märkten mit der Nachfrage in den Ballungszentren und den großen städtischen Märkten zukommen zu lassen. Nichtsdestotrotz werden bei diversen Programmen der Entwicklungsorganisationen die Händler und vor allem Händlerinnen außen vor gelassen, die Konzentration und Aktivitäten wird auf die Produktion und teilweise auf die Handhabung nach der Ernte fokussiert. Der Wertschöpfungsketten-Ansatz verfolgt jedoch per definitionem alle Akteure in der Kette der Wertschöpfung, allein hierbei fehlen die Händler in der Umsetzung. Die Arbeit soll daher aufzeigen, welche Funktionen die Händlerinnen in den drei ausgewählten Fällen übernehmen und wie somit die Entwicklung von Wertschöpfungsketten optimiert werden und letztendlich die beteiligten Händlerinnen zu einer Verbesserung der Wertschöpfungskette beitragen können. / Trade is a widespread occupation for women in West Africa; such as petty traders that are involved with informal trade mainly. The case in Ghana is different as most of these traders are facing hostile treatment and harassment from many sides. Nevertheless, in development cooperation projects, rural economic development and development of its population is often targeted; whereas solely rural development projects have become projects to support value chains and its stakeholders. These value chains start at agricultural production, further on to processing and altering the raw product until its final condition for sale to the end consumer. The entire value chain deals with many diverse actors in rural and urban areas and also diverse areas of economies, such as micro and small enterprises, and other in private sector or public sector. Therefore, development cooperation dealing with value chain enhancement would address all actors. In Ghana, mainly production side and post-harvest management are dealt with and trade or intermediary trade is circumvented. Some projects openly state that they leave out traders from their interventions in value chains. Most prejudices of this type have derived from historical events and official institutions, also a lack of knowledge. Traders are by contrast those who are coordinating streams of goods from beyond borders to supply to domestic markets and vice versa, manage large quantities for export. The reason that women continue to work in trade is that they barely have alternatives.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: African art music practices of western origin have oftentimes been excluded from general discourses on western art music practices. In this study, close readings of selected art songs by twentieth and twenty-first century Nigerian, Ghanaian, Egyptian and South African composers serve to ‘map’ this music through challenging existing general discourses on art music composition, and genre-specific discourses on art song composition in Africa. The readings also serve to create new discourses, including ones that promote African crossregional engagements. In the first part of this dissertation, the readings take place in the contexts of the selected countries. The second section presents pre-selected discourses and theories as points of departure. Chapter 2 proposes to question how the theory of African vocalism can be expanded, and how animist materialism could serve as an alternative context in which to read the composition of art music in Nigeria and Ghana. Chapter 3 aims to answer which strategies in anti-exotic self-representation have been followed in twentieth-century Egyptian art song. Chapter 4 asks how South African composers of art song have denoted ‘Africa’ in their works, and how these denotations relate to their oeuvres and general stylistic practices. Chapter 5 interrogates how composers have dealt with the requirements of tonal languages in their setting of texts in such languages to music. Chapter 6 probes possible interpretations of composers’ display of the ‘objects’ of cultural affiliation, positing expatriate African composers as diplomats. Chapter 7 asks what the contexts are in which to read specific examples of African intercultural art music, without which the analyst might make an inappropriate (perhaps unethical?) value judgement. The conclusion presents a comparison of trends and styles in African art song to those in certain western song traditions. A discussion on folk and popular song styles as art is followed by a consideration of African vocalism in the context of the dissertation as a whole. A continuation of an earlier discussion on the compositional denotation of ‘Africa’ leads to a consideration of the ‘duty to denote’ in the context of western modernity. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Kunsmusiekpraktyke van westerse oorsprong in Afrika is gereeld van algemene diskoerse oor westerse kunsmusiekpraktyke uitgesluit. Stip-lesings van geselekteerde kunsliedere deur Nigeriese, Ghanese, Egiptiese en Suid-Afrikaanse komponiste dien in hierdie studie om die musiek op die ‘kaart te plaas’ deur in gesprek te tree met bestaande algemene diskoerse oor kunsmusiekkomposisie, asook genre-spesifieke diskoerse oor kunsliedkomposisie in Afrika. Die lesings dien ook om nuwe diskoerse te skep, insluitend diskoerse wat gesprekke óór die grense van verskillende streke in Afrika bevorder. Die lesings in die eerste helfde van die proefskrif vind plaas binne die kontekste van die geselekteerde lande. In die tweede deel word vooraf-geselekteerde diskoerse en teorieë as wegspringpunte gebruik. Hoofstuk 2 stel dit ten doel om te vra hoe die teorie van Afrikavokalisme (African vocalism) uitgebrei kan word, en hoe animistiese realisering (animist materialism) as alternatiewe konteks kan dien waarin die komposisie van kunsmusiek in Nigerië en Ghana gelees kan word. In Hoofstuk 3 word gepoog om uit te vind watter strategieë in anti-eksotiese self-uitbeelding gevolg is in twintigste-eeuse Egiptiese kunsliedkomposisie. Die doel van Hoofstuk 5 is om uit te vind hoe komponiste die vereistes van toontale in hul toonsettings van tekste in sulke tale hanteer het. Hoofstuk 6 ondersoek moontlike interpretasies van komponiste se aanbiedings van die ‘objekte’ van kultuuraffiliasie deur die postulering van geëmigreerde komponiste as diplomate. Hoofstuk 7 vra wat die kontekste is waarin spesifieke voorbeelde van interkulturele kunsmusiek uit Afrika gelees kan word, waarsonder die analis ‘n onvanpaste (dalk onetiese?) waardebeoordeling kan maak. Die slot bied ’n vergelyking van tendense en style in Afrika-kunsliedere met dié in sekere westerse liedtradisies aan. ’n Bespreking van volks- en populêre liedstyle as kuns word gevolg deur ’n oorweging van Afrika-vokalisme in die konteks van die proefskrif as geheel. ‘n Voortsetting van ’n vroeëre gesprek oor die komposisionele uitbeelding van ‘Afrika’ lei tot ‘n oorweging van die ‘plig om uit te beeld’ in die konteks van westerse moderniteit.

Religion has become one of the central themes in the Ghanaian/Nigerian video film industry. The portrayal of religious elements which mirrors the religious dynamics of the audience has been attributed partly to the success and popularity of the films. The video films have also excited religious passions as well as criticisms. The heart of the debate, as the existing studies indicate, is how the various religious traditions (often, Christianity and Indigenous religions) are represented in the video films. Whereas some scholars opine that Christianity, especially Pentecostal-Charismatic Churches are frequently privileged, others contend that the religious delineation in the video films reflect experiential issues; the churches are portrayed in line with the niche, positive or otherwise, that they have created for themselves which is well known to producers and the consumers. This study examines the religious constructs in the Ghanaian/Nigerian video films phenomenon. The main focus is an investigation into audience reception of the video films, particularly among the members of Pentecostal-Charismatic Christianity in Ghana and the UK. It also explores the appropriation of the religious elements in general and Pentecostal-Charismatic narratives in selected video films. An ethnographic research method, comprising mainly of textual analysis of selected video films; participant observation and qualitative interviews, was used to draw comparative insights from a cross section of members of Action Chapel International and Word Miracle International churches in Accra and London. This thesis contributes to the on-going discourse on the Ghanaian/Nigerian video films and Pentecostal-Charismatic Christianity partly popularized by Birgit Meyer and Afe Adogame. Hall’s Encoding/Decoding theoretical framework is used to explore the reception while the Uses and Gratifications theory is also adopted to examine the appropriation of the religious constructs in the Ghanaian/Nigerian video films. Notwithstanding the fluid representations of various religious traditions in Ghanaian/Nigerian video films, the findings show that the reception and uses of the religious narratives in the films by the audience comprise of a synthesis of full embrace on one hand and scepticism on the other. It was found that beyond entertainment, majority of the audience who were members of Pentecostal-Charismatic Christianity focus on the religious significance of the video films. Yet, most pastors and leaders in these churches were not comfortable recommending the video films as a good partner in the religious lives of their members. As this thesis focused on only Pentecostal-Charismatic audience, further research on members of other Christian denominations or religions regarding their self-representation in the video films is recommended. This will help to establish if the reception pattern of other religious groups is complex or linked directly with the portrayal trend of one’s religion.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2015. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Microinsurance services have been operating in Ghana for the last decade, but the question whether they have enhanced the welfare of low-income households, mostly in the informal sector, is largely unresearched. In particular the study asks: does microinsurance improve the welfare of households through asset retention, consumption smoothing and inequality reduction? This question has been examined through the use of the 2010 FINSCOPE survey which contains in-depth information on 3 642 households across the rural and urban settings of the country. In order to control for selection bias and endogeneity bias, Heckman sample selection, instrumental variable and treatment effect models were employed for the evaluation. The results of the assessment have been compiled into four empirical essays. The first essay investigates the impact of microinsurance on household asset accumulation. The findings show that microinsurance has a positive welfare impact in terms of household asset accumulation. This suggests that microinsurance prevents asset pawning and liquidation of essential household assets at ‘give away’ prices. By absorbing the risk of low-income households, insurance equips them to cope effectively with risk, empowers them to escape poverty and sustains the welfare gains achieved. The second essay examines the impact of microinsurance on consumption smoothing. It delves into the capacity of microinsurance to enable households to avoid costly risk-coping methods which are detrimental to health and well-being. The results reveal that insured households are less likely to reduce the daily intake of meals, which is an indication that microinsurance is a better option for managing consumption smoothing among low-income households. The third essay investigates the effect of microinsurance on households’ asset inequality. The findings indicate that the asset inequality of insured households is less than that of uninsured households. Insured female-headed households have much lower asset inequality than male-headed households, but uninsured female-headed households are worse off than both uninsured and insured male-headed households. The regional trend reveals that developmental gaps impede the capacity of microinsurance to bridge the asset inequality gap. The fourth essay asks: Does microcredit improve the well-being of low-income households in the absence of microinsurance? The findings show a weak influence of microcredit on household welfare. However households using microcredit in combination with microinsurance derive significant gains in terms of welfare improvement. Microcredit may be good, but its real benefits to the poor is best realised if the poverty trapping risks are covered with microinsurance. To this extent, combining microcredit with microinsurance will empower the poor to make a sustainable exit from poverty. The findings of this thesis have pertinent policy implications for the government, the development community and stakeholders in the insurance industry. Microinsurance is a good instrument for improving the welfare of households and thus this research recommends its integration into the poverty reduction strategy of Ghana and a greater insurance inclusion for the lower end of the market.

Thesis (MBA)--Stellenbosch University, 2007. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Africa's economic growth will not be found across the Atlantic or Indian oceans in international markets. Growth will not be achieved by simply giving away state assets in large privatisation transactions. Growth will also not come from giving away valuable concessions to scarce natural resources or handing out investment incentives to resource seeking foreign investors. Governments and policy makers need to accept that drivers to sustainable economic growth, lies much closer to home. Not in greater domestic savings by that average man in the street (who, in Africa's poor economies, often would need to forego a daily meal in order to save), but even closer. The policies for economic growth in Africa need to be focussed on flrst achieving production and allocative efficiencies at home. The real drivers to achieve growth are to be found in the primary responsibilities of the state: Political stability though good governance Stable macroeconomic environments Good working infrastructures Educated and trained labour forces Sizable market through regional cooperation (eg. SADe) African leaders and policy makers would be well served by a change in policy and attitude. Searching for solutions from within, rather than from abroad, will provide more sustainable growth. Requests for international debt relieve, complaints about (and excuses based on) the wrongs of the colonial past, demands for international trade concessions and efforts to secure international investment; may only result in a shift in the focus away from the basic problems at home. At the same time, a committed and disciplined focus on political and macro-economic stability; an efficient infrastructure, quality labour and bigger markets will naturally lead to substantial increases in international trade (while at the same time provide for better platform for negotiating international trade dispensation), will generate foreign investment and will reduce the importance of debt relieve. In addition, an stable environment combined with a reliable infrastructure and a quality labour force provides fertile grounds for local African entrepreneurs to excel and in time create opportunities for domestic savings and organic growth. This study does will not convey a popular message. No quick fixes exist and Africa will have to turn their focus inwards. Africa will have to stop blaming past rulers and stop pleading with current the world leaders. International political and economical leaders will not come to the rescue of Africa, however wrong the past has been. Africa will have to pick itself up by its own bootlaces. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Ekonorniese groei in Afrika sal nie gevind word oorkant die Atrlantiese of Indiese oseane in intemasionale markte nie. Groei sal nie behaal word deur eenvoudig staatbates weg te gee in groot privatiserings transaksies nie. Groei sal ook nie bewerkstellig word deur waardevolle konsessies tot skaars natuurlike hulpbronne uit te deel of deur toegewings vir die aansporing van beleggings aan hulpbron soekende intemasionale beleggers te maak nie. Owerhede en beleidmakers moet aanvaar dat die drywers vir volhoubare ekonomiese groei veel nader aan die huis Ie. Nie in groter huishoudelike besparings deur die man in die straat nie (wie Afrika se arm ekonomie waarskynlik 'n maaltyd sal moet prysegee om te kan spaar.), maar selfs nader. Die beleid vir ekonomiese groei in Afrika moet gefokus wees daarop om eerstens produksie en allokasie effektiwiteit in die plaaslike ekonomie te behaal. Die drywers om dit reg te kry word gevind in die primere vernatwoordelikhede van die staat: -Politieke stabiliteit deur goeie regering -Stabiele makro-ekonomiese omgewing -Goeie werkende infrastruktuur -Opgevoede en opgeleide werkersmag -Redelike grootte markte deur samewerking op streeksvlak (bv. SAOG) Afrika leiers en beleidmakers sal baat by 'n verandering in beleid en houding. Die soeke na oplossing van binne eerder as in die buiteland, sal eerder volhoubare groei bied. Versoeke vir intemasionale skuldverligting, klagtes rakende (en verskonings gebaseer op) die foute van die koloniale verlede, eise vir intemasionale handelskonsessies en pogings om internasionale beleggings te lok; al hierdie aksies lei waarskynlik slegs daartoe dat die fokus en aandag wegskuif van die basiese probleme in die plaaslike ekonomie. Terselfdertyd sal 'n toegewyde en gedissiplineerde fokus op politieke en makroekonomiese stabiliteit, 'n effektiewe infrastruktuur, hoer kwaliteit arbeidsmag en groter markte verseker oor die lang termyn weI lei tot 'n wesentlike toename in intemasionale handel (terwyl dit ook gelyktydig 'n beter platform skep om te onderbandel vir 'n meer voordelige intemasionale handelsdispensasie), meer intemasionale beleggings en sal die belangrikheid van skuldverligting laat afneem. Verder sal 'n stabiele omgewing, gekombineerd met 'n betroubare infrastruktuur en 'n bekwame arbeidsmag 'n vrugbare omgewing daar stel vir plaaslike Afrika entrepreneurs om uit te styg en te presteer. Dit sal oor die lang termyn geleentheid skep vir huishoudelike besparing en organiese groei. Hierdie studie bring nie 'n gewilde boodskap nie. Geen kitsoplossings bestaan nie en Afrika sal hul fokus inwaarts moet verskif. Afrika sal moet ophou om die koloniale heersers van die verlede te blameer en moet ophou om by huidige internasionale leiers te pleit vir hulp en toegewings. Intemasionale politieke en ekonomiese leiers sal nie tot die redding van Afrika kom nie, hoe verkeerd die verlede ookal was. Afrika sal homself moet optel aan sy eie skoenveters.

Dissertation (PhD)--University of Stellenbosch, 2007. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This thesis is made of stand-alone essays on the capital structure and financing of Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) in Ghana and South Africa. Chapter Two reviews issues on SME development in Ghana and South Africa. Chapter Three compares the capital structures of large, quoted firms and SMEs in Ghana. The results show that quoted firms exhibit higher debt ratios than those of SMEs. The results suggest that age, size, asset structure, and profitability of the firm affect the capital structures of quoted firms and SMEs. For the SME, it is evident that level of education and gender of the entrepreneur, industry, and location of the firm are also important in explaining their capital structure. Chapter Four examines the determinants of bank financing of SMEs in Ghana. The results reveal that bank financing accounts for less than a quarter of SMEs’ debt financing, with short-term bank credit representing the greater proportion of bank finance. The results show that age, size, asset tangibility, and growth of the firm have positive associations with long-term bank debt, while profitability is negatively related to long-term bank debt. The short-term debt indicates a positive relationship with size, but negative relationships with profitability, and growth. Chapter Four also investigates the awareness and use of various financing schemes available to the Ghanaian SME sector. The results reveal low awareness and usage levels of these financing initiatives. Chapter Five explores the determinants of Ghanaian small and medium sized non-traditional exporters’ (NTEs) choice of formal/informal finance. The results show that NTEs depend on formal financing sources with bank finance representing the greater percentage of NTEs’ financing. The results suggest that, newer firms depend more on formal finance and less on informal finance. The results show positive relationships between formal finance and size, and growth of the firm. Chapter Six assesses how corporate governance affects the performance of SMEs in Ghana and what the implications are for financing opportunities. The results reveal that better corporate governance structures lead to better performance of SMEs. The paper concludes that the adoption of good corporate governance structures could lead to better management decisions and enable SMEs to attract financing resources. Chapter Seven examines the relationship between agency factors and the capital structure of quoted SMEs in South Africa. The results indicate that firms with one institutional blockholder are able to monitor the opportunistic behaviour of management more effectively than those with more than one institutional blockholders. Chapter Eight looks at the financial market and financing choice of SMEs and large firms in South Africa. The results indicate that developments in the financial market affect both longterm debt/equity and short-term debt/equity decisions of large firms. However, for SMEs, it is the long-term debt/equity decision that is affected by the financial market. The final essay examines the effect of debt policy on the performance of SMEs in Ghana and South Africa. The results indicate that long-term debt and total debt ratios negatively affect performance of SMEs. These findings have important implications for policy-makers, entrepreneurs and managers of SMEs. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie tesis bestaan uit losstaande essays oor die kapitaalstruktuur en finansiering van kleinen middelgrootte-ondernemings (KMO's) in Ghana en Suid-Afrika. Hoofstuk Twee kyk na kwessies oor KMO-ontwikkeling in Ghana en Suid-Afrika. Hoofstuk Drie vergelyk die kapitaalstrukture van groot genoteerde maatskappye en KMO's in Ghana. Die resultate dui daarop dat genoteerde maatskappye groter skuldverhoudings as KMO's toon. Hierdie resultate wys ook dat ouderdom, grootte, batestruktuur en die winsgewendheid van die maatskappy die kapitaalstruktuur van genoteerde maatskappye en KMO's beïnvloed. Dit is vir die KMO voor die hand liggend dat die opvoedingsvlak en geslag van die entrepreneur, die bedryf en die ligging van die maatskappy ook belangrik is om die kapitaalstruktuur daarvan te verduidelik. Hoofstuk Vier ondersoek die bepalende faktore vir bankfinansiering vir KMO's in Ghana. Die resultate toon aan dat bankfinansiering rekenskap gee van minder as 'n kwart van die KMO se skuldfinansiering en dat korttermynbankkrediet die grootste gedeelte van die bankfinansiering verteenwoordig. Die resultate toon aan dat ouderdom, grootte, die tasbaarheid van bates en maatskappygroei op 'n positiewe verwantskap met langtermynskuld dui, terwyl winsgewendheid 'n negatiewe verband met langtermynbankskuld het. Die korttermynskuld toon 'n positiewe verwantskap met grootte maar 'n negatiewe verwantskap met winsgewendheid en groei aan. Hoofstuk Vier ondersoek ook die bewustheid en gebruik van verskeie finansieringskemas wat aan die Ghanese KMO-sektor beskikbaar is. Die resultate bring 'n lae bewustheid en gebruiksvlakke van hierdie finansieringsinisiatiewe aan die lig. Hoostuk Vyf verken die bepalende faktore van die Ghanese klein- en middelgrootte nie-tradisionele uitvoerders (NTU's) se keuse van formele/informele finansiering. Die resultate toon aan dat NTU's op formele finansieringsbronne staat maak en dat bankfinansiering die grootste persentasie van die NTU's se finansiering uitmaak. Uit die resultate kan afgelei word dat nuwer maatskappye meer op formele finansiering staat maak en minder op informele finansiering. Die resultate dui op 'n positiewe verwantskap tussen formele finansiering en grootte, en die groei van die maatskappy. Hoofstuk Ses evalueer die invloed van korporatiewe bestuur op die prestasie van KMO's in Ghana en watter implikasies dit vir finansieringsgeleenthede inhou. Die resultate toon aan dat beter korporatiewe finansieringstrukture by KMO's tot beter prestasie lei. Hierdie essay kom tot die gevolgtrekking dat die aanvaarding van goeie korporatiewe bestuurstrukture tot beter bestuursbesluite kan lei en KMO's in staat kan stel om finansieringsbronne te lok. Hoofstuk Sewe ondersoek die verwantskap tussen agentskapfaktorering en die kapitaalstruktuur van genoteerde KMO's in Suid-Afrika. Die resultate dui daarop dat maatskappye met een institusionele blokhouer die opportunistiese gedrag van bestuur meer doeltreffend kan monitor as dié met meer as een institusionele blokhouer. Hoofstuk Agt kyk na die keuses wat KMO's en groot maatskappye in Suid-Afrika ten opsigte van finansiële markte en finansiering maak. Resultate toon aan dat ontwikkelings in die finansiële mark besluite oor die langtermynskuld/aandelekapitaal sowel as die korttermynskuld/aandelekapitaal van groot maatskappye beïnvloed. By KMO's is dit egter besluite oor langtermynskuld/aandelekapitaal wat deur die finansiële mark beïnvloed word. Die laaste essay ondersoek die uitwerking van skuldbeleid op die prestasie van KMO's in Ghana en Suid-Afrika. Die resultate toon aan dat langtermynskuld en totale skuldverhoudings die prestasie van KMO's negatief beïnvloed. Hierdie bevindinge het belangrike implikasies vir beleidmakers, entrepreneurs en die bestuurders van KMO's.

This thesis draws on an ethnographic research in Ghana to question mainstream views on decentralisation that local level institutions can be consciously crafted to enlist the participation of marginal actors in governance thereby leading to efficiency and equity in development. The research explores the everyday practice of local governance in Ntonaboma, a resettlement community in the Eastern region of Ghana by using participant observation and interviews. Evidence from the study reveals that first decentralisation is not a technical or managerial exercise but rather a societal practice taking place among heterogeneous actors with diverse interest and values. Secondly, the interactions occurring among these diverse actors are mediated through the interplay of a variety of institutions at the local level. Thirdly, the complex and dynamic character of decentralisation at the community level make the specificities of context very relevant in understanding the transformative potentials of decentralisation especially how it impacts on people and their social organisation. The study places emphasis on the application of agency, institutions and authority in local governance approaches. Evidence from the study suggests that institutionalised decentralisation inadequately provides possibilities for ordinary people to transform the nature of their interactions within the community. The thesis raises further questions about the simplistic and instrumental use of institutions in local governance approaches. The study notes that institutions are not static and do not determine outcomes but are informed by the prevailing conditions at the community level. Thus, the actions of actors and specificities of the locality do shape institutions. The study emphasises the role of existing institutions and socially embedded principles in village governance. It thus suggests that, the process of decentralisation is a political process mediated through diverse institutions and with varied outcomes for different individuals. The study concludes by exploring implications for local governance and decentralisation to making local governance pro-poor.